Drinking Coffee May Reduce the Incidence of Skin Cancer

   Caffeine in Coffee Lessens

     the Risk of  Skin Cancer

Evelyn  E. Smith

M. S. in Library Science, University of North Texas (2012)

Research Links Coffee with Reduced Skin Cancer Rates

Researchers theorize that the more coffee an individual drinks, the lower his or her risk of basal cell carcinoma after controlling for other risks factors like sun exposure and skin pigment. Similarly, the caffeine in coffee acts as a barrier against UVB (short wave) rays just as lots of coffee drinking reduces or delays the onset of Alzheimer's Disease.  However, the optimal dosage is three or more cups of regular coffee daily, for drinking only a cup daily produced only a minimal therapeutic effect.   But that doesn't mean that sun-worshiping coffee-lovers can use tanning booths without any guilt or go out in the sun without sunscreen. Moreover, drinking four or more cups daily only provides a minimal amount of protection in older adults when compared with their counterparts who don't drink any coffee.

Bottom Line:  Drinking coffee isn't a cure all for preventing skin cancer, but it does provide more protection than abstaining from drinking any coffee. Furthermore, scientific research studies should always be studied in their historical context.

Abel, E. L., Hendrix, S. O, & McNeeley, S. G. (2007 October). Daily coffee consumption and prevalence of nonmelanoma skin cancer in Caucasian women. European Journal of Cancer Prevention, 446-52. [Abstract only]. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17923816

Researchers from the Department of Obstretrics and Gynecology at Wayne State University after conducting a cross-sectional analysis of Caucasian women enrolled in a Women's Health Initiative Observational Study found that when compared with those white women who abstained from drinking coffee, those who self-reported that they drank coffee daily showed a 10.8 lower incidence of non-melanoma skin cancer. Moreover, drinking six or more cups of coffee daily reduced the chances of developing nonmelanoma skin cancer 30 percent after adjusted by demographic and life-style variables.  

Conney, A. H., Lu, Y. P., & Lou, Y. R., et al. (2013, June 17). Mechanisms of Caffeine-Induced Inhibition of UVB Carcinogenesis. Frontiers in Oncology, 3: 144. doi: 10.3389/fonc.2013.00144. ECollection 2013. [Abstract only]. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23785666

The caffeine in coffee inhibits ATR and UVB-induced carcinogenesis, according to studies conducted on UVB-induced skin cancer in mice and epidemiological studies that show that coffee drinking inhibits non-melanoma skin cancer in humans. Apparently, caffeine produces a sunscreen that inhibits sunburn lesions in the epidermis, or the outer layer of skin, in mice as well as the UVB-induced formation of thymine dimers, or chemically-bonded, adjacent thymine bases in DNA.  [When cancerous cells start to repair themselves, thymine dimers produce malignant cell mutations]. In addition, caffeine raises the rate of cell death, or apoptosis, in tumors, and enhances UVB-induced cell apoptosis, thereby increasing the removal of damaged precancerous cells.

Transgenic mice irradiated chronically with UVB had 69 percent fewer tumors at the end of the study when administered caffeine that inhibited ATR when compared with irradiated controls with normal ATR function.

Ferrucci, L. M. Cartmel, B., & Molinaro, A. M., et al. (2014, July 23). Tea, coffee, and caffeine and early-onset basal cell carcinoma in a case-control study. European Journal of Cancer Prevention. 4, 296-302. doi: 10.1097/CEJ.0000000000000037. [Abstract only]. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24841641

A Yale University study has found that “combined regular consumption of caffeinated coffee and hot tea is inversely associated with the early onset of basal cell carcinoma.” In other words, those study participants who drank the most caffeinated coffee and hot tea reduced their risk of developing basal cell carcinoma 43 percent when compared with individuals who don't drink coffee and tea. After evaluating data from 767 non-Hispanic whites under age 30, this case-control study randomly samples individuals in Yale's dermato-pathology database for benign skin diagnoses and frequency matched to cases for age, sex, and biopsy data whereupon study participants completed an in person interview assessing their intake of coffee and hot tea. Researchers theorize that the caffeine in the coffee and hot tea may produce this protective effect.

Fortes, C., Mastroeni, S., & Boffetta, P., et al. (2013, October 24). The protective effect of coffee consumption on cutaneous melanoma risk and the role of GSTM1 and GSTT1 polymorphisms. Cancer, Causes & Control: CCC. 10, 1779-87. doi: 10.1007/s10552-013-0255-4. Epub 2013 Jul 17. [Abstract only]. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23860951

A case-control study that took place within the inpatient wards of the IDI-San Carlo in Rome, Italy, examined 304 cases of cutaneous melanoma and 305 controls, collecting information of their socio-demographic characteristics, medical history, smoking habits, amount of sun exposure, skin pigment, and diets. Researchers found that drinking a cup of coffee at least once daily compared with drinking coffee less than five times weekly produced a small “protective effect that guarded against cutaneous melanoma (OR 0.46; 95 % CI 0.31-0.68) after taking into consideration the individual's gender, age, education, hair color, birthmarks, skin phototype, and sunburn episodes in childhood.

Kang, N. J., Lee, K. W., & Shin, B. J., et al. Caffeic acid, a phenolic phytochemical in coffee, directly inhibits Fyn kinase activity and UVB-induced COX-2 expression. (2009, February). Carcinogenenesis, 30(2), 321-30. doi: 10.1093/carcin/bgn282. Epub 2008 Dec 10. [Abstract only]. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19073879

Researchers at the Hormel Institute at the University of Minnesota note that in-vivo data from mice epideral skin supports the hypothesis that caffeic acid suppresses UVB-induced COX-2 expression by blocking Fyn kinase activity. Fyn, a non-receptor protein ember of the tyrosine kinase family, is necessary for ultraviolet (UV B-induced cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2 expression.  However, caffeic acid checks UVB-induced skin carcinogenesis by directly blocking Fyn kinase activity.

Loftfield, Erikka, Freedman, Neal D., & Graubard, Barry L. (2015, January 13). Coffee drinking and cutaneous melanoma risk in the HIH-AARP Diet and Health Study. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 107(2). doi: 10.1093/jnci/dju421. [Full text]. Retrieved from http://jnci.oxfordjournals.org/content/107/2/dju421.full

In a decade-long study of 447,357 non-Hispanic whites, high coffee intake of four or more cups of coffee daily correlates with a modest decrease in the risk of melanoma when researchers who compared study participants  who drank large amounts of coffee with non coffee-drinkers (≥4 cups/day: HR = 0.75, 95% CI = 0.64 to 0.89, P _trend = .01), but they didn't find a link between drinking decaffeinated coffee and a reduced risk of skin cancer (Loftfield, 2014, November 25, para. 1-4).

Lu, Y. P., Lou, Y. R., & Peng, Q. Y., et al. (2011, July). Caffeine decreases phospho-Chk1 (Ser317) and increases mitotic cells with cyclin B1 and caspase 3 in tumors from UVB-treated mice. Cancer Prevention Research (Philadelphia, Pa.), 4(7), 1118-25. doi: 10.1158/1940-6207.CAPR-11-0116. Epub 2011 Apr 19. [Abstract only]. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21505179

Giving mice doses of caffeine significantly impairs phospho-Chk1 (Ser317) staining and an increased the number of mitotic cells that develop cyclin B1 and caspase 3 in tumors that are consistent with selectively-produced, lethal mitosis in tumors. Researchers hypothesize that caffeine can induce selective cell death, or apoptosis, in UVB tumors by inhibiting ATR/Chk1 pathways, thus promoting lethal mitosis. Therefore, caffeinated coffee and tea intake correlates with a decreased incidence of non-melanoma skin cancer.

Miura, K., Hughes, M. C., & Green, A.C. (2014). Caffeine intake and risk of basal cell and squamous cell carcinomas of the skin in an 11-year prospective study. European Journal of Nutrition, 53(2), 511-20. doi: 10.1007/s00394-013-0556-0. Epub 2013 Jul 4. [Abstract only]. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23824258

Researchers found no link between total caffeine intake and the incidence of basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma in a study that assessed the consumption of coffee in 1992, 1994, and 1996 in 1,325 randomly selected adult living in a subtropical Australian community.  However, individuals who had had prior skin cancers experienced a 25 percent lower risk of developing basal cell carcinoma if they drank four cups of coffee daily. Thus, a “relatively high” intake of caffeine may reduce the development of basal cell carcinoma in those individuals who have previously been diagnosed with skin cancer.

Song, F., Qureshi, A. A., & Han, J. (2012, July 1). Increased caffeine intake is associated with reduced risk of basal cell carcinoma of the skin. Cancer Research, 72(13), 3282-9. [Abstract only]. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22752299

Using data from the Nurses' Health Study and Health Professionals Follow-up Study, Harvard  University researchers examined the risks after analyzing 22,786 cases of basal cell carcinoma, 1,953 cases of squamous cell carcinoma , and 741 cases of melanoma  in relation to caffeine intake. The highest quintile of coffee drinkers in both men and women had the lowest risk of developing skin cancer (RR, 0.82 in women; 95% CI:,0.77-0.86 and RR, 0.87 in men; 95% CI, 0.81-0.94; Ptrend<0.0001 in both).

Women who drank more than three cups of coffee daily experienced the lowest risk when compared with women who drank less than one cup of coffee a month. Other sources of caffeine in tea, cola, and coffee as well as decaffeinated coffee also lowered the risk of developing basal cell carcinoma.

Yang, G., Fu, Y. & Malakhova, M., et al. (2014, October 7). Caffeic acid directly targets ERK1/2 to attenuate solar UV-induced skin carcinogenesis. Cancer Prevention Research. 10, 1056-66. doi:10.1158/1940-6207. [Abstract only]. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25104643

The Caffeic acid (3,4-dihydroxycinnamic acid) found in coffee “significantly inhibits colony formation of human skin cancer cells and EGF-induced neoplastic transformation of HaCaT cells dose-dependently.” Even though researchers as yet don't understand why topical application of caffeic acid reduces tumors, after they induced skin carcinogeneisis in mice, treating skin topically with caffeic acid great suppressed the occurrence and volume of tumors.

A case-control study that took place within the inpatient wards of the IDI-San Carlo in Rome, Italy, examined 304 cases of cutaneous melanoma and 305 controls, collecting information about their socio-demographic characteristics, medical history, smoking habits, amount of sun exposure, skin pigment, and diets. Researchers found that drinking a cup of coffee at least once daily compared with drinking coffee less than five times weekly produced a small “protective effect that guarded against cutaneous melanoma (OR 0.46; 95 % CI 0.31-0.68) after taking into consideration the individual's gender, age, education, hair color, birthmarks, skin phototype, and sunburn episodes in childhood.

              Popular Articles Tout Coffee 

           Caffeine's Suppression of Cancer

Staying out of the sun is a more effective means of preventing 

skin cancer than drinking lots of coffee.

Drinking four cups of coffee daily might lower the risk of melanoma 20 percent, according to a just released National Cancer Institute/AARP study, but as the Prevention Magazine warns, it also increases the production of cortisol that might lead to heart disease. That means that older adults should be able to enjoy three cups of coffee a day, which also might protect or delay Alzheimer's disease, but they shouldn't overdo their coffee drinking. The Loftfield study also contradicts a much-cited 2012 Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard University study that found that drinking three cups of coffee daily, particularly on sunny days, destroys precancerous cells that might develop into basal cell carcinoma, but it doesn't suppress squamous cell carcinomas or melanomas. All researchers, however emphasize that drinking lots of coffee doesn't mean that sunbathers should go out in the sun without applying sunscreen and wearing protective clothing.

Bakalar, Nicholas. (2015, January 22). Coffee may cut melanoma risk. Well. New York Times. Retrieved from http://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2015/01/22/coffee-may-cut-melanoma-risk/?_r=0

A ten-year study conducted by the National Cancer Institute links drinking four or more cups of coffee daily with a 20 percent reduction in risk for developing melanoma in non-Hispanic whites aged 50 to 71 when compared with their counterparts who don't drink any coffee (Bakalar, 2015, January 22, para. 1-3). 

All the same, the study's lead researcher, Erikka Loftfield, a graduate student at the Yale School of Public Health, cautions that the best way individuals can still reduce their reduce the risk of skin cancer is to stay out of the sun and avoid ultra violet light exposure (Bakalar, 2015 January 22, para. 4). The study controlled for age, gender, education, smoking, physical activity, and alcohol consumption, but it didn't control for possible “unknown variables” that might influence this connection (Bakalr, 205, January 22, para. 5).

Park, Alice. (2015, January 20). This drink could protect you from skin cancer. Health/Cancer. Time. Retrieved from http://time.com/3675152/this-drink-could-protect-you-from-skin-cancer/

A National Institute of Health/AARP study released Tuesday, January 13, 2015, theorizes that drinking more than four cups of coffee daily lowers the  chance of developing melanoma 20 percent [compared to those who abstain entirely from coffee] (Park, 2015, January 20, para. 3). Erikka Loftfield and her fellow researchers surveyed 447,000 individuals [aged 51 to 71] who answered a 124-item food questionnaire and also allowed  researchers to access their medical records. The researchers then adjusted their findings to allow for such adverse effects as age, smoking, alcohol use, a family history of cancer, but these factors couldn't break the link between heavy coffee drinking and a lower risk of melanoma (Park, 2015, January 20, para. 4).


Loftfield explained that coffee's roasting process releases vitamin derivative that protect against UV damage, so the caffeine in coffee possibly acts as a molecular sunscreen that absorbs UV rays. Loftfield, however,cautioned that other researchers will need to repeat the study to confirm its results (Park, 2015, January 20, para. 6).


Taylor, Marygrace. (2015). 4 cups of coffee could lower your skin cancer risk 20 %. Preventon News. Prevention. Retrieved from http://www.prevention.com/food/food-remedies/coffee-lowers-skin-cancer-risk-20

Drinking lots of coffee may lower the risk of melanoma, according to new researched released by the National Cancer Institute, whose researchers tracked the coffee-drinking habits and skin cancer rates of “nearly 450,000 older adults for over 10 years, finding that that study participants who drank four cups of caffeinated coffee daily had a 20 percent lower risk of developing cancer. Taylor explains that the caffeine and polyphenols in coffee block ultra-violet induced tumors wile the coffee-roasting process might serve as a molecular sunscreen ( 2014, para. 1-3).

Indulging in four cups of coffee daily, however, can increase the production of cortisol, which, in turn, causes weight gain, digestive problems, and heart disease as well as anxiety, irritability, and headaches.   Accordingly, Taylor counsels readers to drink only two cups of coffee daily as well as to read a 12-ounce glass of water both before and afterward to protect against caffeine's dehydrating effect (Taylor, 2014, para. 3-4)
.

Walton, Alice G. (2015, January 23). Study: Coffee may reduce risk of melanoma. Forbes. Retrieved from http://www.forbes.com/sites/alicegwalton/2015/01/23/can-coffee-reduce-the-risk-of-skin-cancer/

Drinking four or more cups of coffee daily may reduce the risk of melanoma--the leading cause of skin cancer death. Previous research shows that compounds in coffee have lessened the risk of skin cancer in lab mice, but in human studies other variables may determine the individual's chances of developing melanoma (Walton, 2015, January 23, para. 1-2).

National Cancer Institute researchers discovered that the risk of malignant melanoma fell 20 percent if study participants drank four cups of coffee daily while they were looking for a connection between diet and skin cancer in a sample size of 447,000 cancer-free, older adults at a beginning of a ten-year longitudinal study in which 2,900 senior adults developed malignant melanoma, and 1,900 developed melanoma (Walton, 2015, January 23, para. 1-2).

Previous studies of lab mice and skin cell cultures has shown that compounds in coffee affect molecular pathways that cut the risk of UV-related skin cancer by reducing inflammation, oxidative stress, and DNA damage in cells (Walton, 2015, January 23, para. 5).   Researchers, nevertheless, admit that earlier longitudinal studies of human populations have produced less convincing results, for example, one study [Song, Qureshi, & Han, et al, 2012] found that drinking coffee reduced the risk of skin cancer in women, but not in men (Walton, 2015, January 23, para. 6).

Then again, a Mayo Clinic study has determined that adults under the age of 55 who drank four or more cups of coffee daily had an increased mortality rate.

See:

Nelson, Jennifer K. & Zeratsky, Katherine. (2013, September 11). Heavy coffee consumption—risky in younger adults. Nutrition and Healthy Eating. Mayo Clinic. Retrieved from http://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-living/nutrition-and-healthy-eating/expert-blog/coffee-and-young-adults/BGP-20056124

Men under age 55 who drink more than 28 cups of coffee weekly or average drinking four cups a day may increase their risk of premature death (Nelson, 2013, September 11, para. 2). The report, however, doesn't account for dietary or socioeconomic variables, although it does consider smoking, exercise and chronic diseases like diabetes and high blood pressure (Nelson, 2013, September 11, para. 3).

Even so, heavy coffee drinker might need to reassess their lifestyle choices to determine if their drinking large quantities of coffee compensates for not enough sleep, if the sugar they add to their coffee causes weight gain, and if they substitute coffee breaks for healthy meals and snacks (Nelson, 2013, September 11, para. 4).

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Warner, Jennifer. (2011, October 24). Coffee fights common skin cancer: Coffee drinkers less likely to develop most common types of skin cancer. Melanoma/Skin Cancer Health Center. Web MD. Retrieved from http://www.webmd.com/melanoma-skin-cancer/news/20111024/coffee-fights-common-skin-cancer?page=1


According to a Brigham and Women Hospital and Harvard University Medical study [Song, Qureshi, & Han, 2012), women who drink more than three cups of coffee daily lower their risk of basal cell carcinoma 20 percent more than those women who drank coffee less than once a month while men who drank more than three cups of coffee daily were 9 percent less likely to develop basal cell carcinoma cancer (Warner, 2011, October 24, para. 2-3). But drinking decaffeinated coffee didn't reduce skin cancer at all, a finding that led researchers to speculate that caffeine is the primary ingredient in coffee that reduces skin cancer (Warner, 2011, October 24, para. 4). All the same, researchers suggested that avoiding a sunburn is a better way to reduce the risk of skin cancer (Warner, 2011, October 24, para. 7).

Caffeine Cuts Skin Cancer Risk

Researchers claim that their look at more than 110,000 participants in the Nurses' Health Study and a Health Professionals' Follow-Up made up the first “large, prospective study” to analyze the effect of coffee drinking on basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and melanoma, although they admit that previous studies hint that drinking coffee might prevent non-melanoma skin cancer (Warner, 2011, October 24, para. 8-11).

Researchers followed their study's participants for 22 to 24 years, during which time, participants reported 22,786 cases of basal cell carcinoma, 1,953 incidences of squamous cell carcinomas, and 741 melanomas whereupon researchers concluded that drinking coffee decreased the risk of developing basal cell carcinoma compared to participants who abstained from coffee, but the caffeine in coffee didn't effect other types of cancer. Women who drank the most coffee lowers their risk of developing basal cell carcinoma 18 percent, and coffee guzzling men lowered their risk nine percent (Warner, 2011, para. 12-14).

Coffee Better Than the Beach

These results, however, surprised Allan Conney, the Director of the Susan Lehman Cullman Laboratory, who had expected to see coffee lower the risk of developing squamous cell carcinomas that animal models had predicted (Warner, 2011, para. 15). Paul Nghiem, an associate professor at the University of Washington, Seattle, theorizes that the caffeine in coffee prevents basal cell carcinoma by killing a small number of precancerous cell damaged by sunlight particularly on a day when someone exposes him or herself to lots of UV-rays, so the cumulative effects of coffee drinking simply don't count. Accordingly, Nghiem is looking into the possibility of adding caffeine to sunscreen (Warner, 2011, para 16-20).

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The links furnished on this Web page represent the opinions of their authors, so they complement—not substitute—for a physician’s advice.

Drinking Three Cups of Coffee Daily May Delay or Prevent Alzheimer's Disease

Go Ahead & Have That 

Third Cup of Coffee: 

It Might Be Good for You

Evelyn E. Smith

M.S. in Library Science, University of North Texas (2012)

Research indicates that drinking three to five cups of coffee a day, or two lattes or cappuccinos, may help prevent or delay the onset of Alzheimer's disease particularly if middle-aged and older coffee drinkers couple this habit with a healthy lifestyle (following a Mediterranean diet that features olive oil, fresh fruits and vegetables, and two or more servings of omega-3 fatty fish weekly, performing 30 minutes of aerobic exercise at least five days a week as well as exercising their minds, watching their weight, and not smoking). Admittedly, however, researchers also confess that it's hard to determine whether moderate to heavy coffee drinkers have a more active lifestyle than their less invigorated counterparts whose Mild Cognitive Disorder gradually slips into Alzheimer's Disease.

Research Online Points to the Possibility that Drinking Coffee Protects Against Alzheimer's Disease

Drinking 3 to 5 cups of coffee may delay or possibly prevent Alzheimer's.

Arendash, G. W. & Cao, C. (2010). Caffeine and coffee as therapeutics against Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Alzheimer's Disease: JAD, 20 Suppl 1:S117-26. doi. 10.3233/JAD-2010-091249 [Abstract only]. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20182037

When researchers gave mice bred to develop dementia caffeine in their drinking water from young adulthood into old age, this lowered the level of amyloid beta protein in their brains. Moreover, “aged” and “cognitively-impaired” mice had lower levels of amyloid beta protein in their brains following only one to two months of caffeine treatment. Indeed, only one oral caffeine treatment reduced both brain and plasma amyloid beta levels. Arendash and Cao conjecture that the cognitive benefits of caffeine result from the caffeine itself and not from the metabolites, or the byproducts, of caffeine. Thus, Arendash and Cao suggest that drinking five cups of coffee daily will protect against the development of Alzheimer's.

Basurto-Islas, G., Blanchard, J, & Tung, Y.C., et al. (2014, December). Therapeutic benefits of a component of coffee in a rat model of Alzheimer's Disease. Neurobiology of Aging. 35(12), 2701-12. doi: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2014.06.012. [Abstract only]. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25034344

In a lab rat's model for Alzheimer's Disease, a supposedly “minor component” of coffee not related to caffeine, eicosanoyl-5-hydroxytryptamide (EHT), ameliorated the effects of cognitive impairment after researchers supplemented the rat's diet with EHT for six to twelve months.

Cao, C., Lowenstein, D. A., & Lin, X. (2012). High blood caffeine levels in MCI linked to lack of progression to dementia. Journal of Alzheimer's Disease: JAD. 20(3), 559-72. doi: 10.3233/JAD-2012-111781. [Abstract only]. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22430531

In a case-controlled study over a two to four year period, plasma caffeine bio-marker levels were 51 percent lower in seniors aged 65 to 88 years old that went on to develop Alzheimer's Disease after first being diagnosed with Mild Cognitive Impairment that those whose plasma caffeine bio-marker levels were above 1200 ng/ml. Coffee was the major or primary source of caffeine for the stable MCI patients. “This case-control study provides the first direct evidence that caffeine/coffee intake is associated with a reduced risk of dementia, or delayed onset, particularly for those who already have MCI.”

Carman, A. H., Dacks, P. A., & Lane, R. F., et al. (2014, April). Current evidence for the use of coffee and caffeine to prevent age-related cognitive decline and Alzheimer's disease. The Journal of Nutrition, Health, and Aging. 18 (4), 383-92. doi: 10.1007/s12603-014-0021-7. [Abstract only]. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24676319

While research has long established that drinking coffee and other drinks containing caffeine improves short-term memory, limited research also suggests that drinking coffee might also protect against the “cognitive decline” that results in Alzheimer's Disease. In vitro and pre-clinical animal models have discovered “plausible neuroprotective mechanisms” in both caffeine and other bio-active components found in coffee; however, epidemiolgy research has come up with “mixed results”: Some studies show a link between caffeine and the ability to guard against dementia, but some research doesn't show that caffeine produces any benefit. Furthermore, the researchers know of no randomized controlled trials to test this hypothesis. Thus, researchers need to carry out short-term clinical trials to validate findings from pre-clinical models as well as to conduct epidemiological studies that incorporate more standardized methods of data collection and analysis.

Chu, Y. F., Chang, W. H., & Black, R. M. (2012, December 1). Crude caffeine reduces memory impairmemt and amyloid β (1014) Levels in an Alzheimer's mouse model. Food Chemistry. 135(3), 2095-2102. oi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.04.148. [Abstract only]. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22953961

Crude caffeine, or the byproduct of decaffeinated coffee, exhibits a “potent hydrophilic antioxidant activity” that may reduce the inflammatory processes associated with Alzheimer's Disease--or at least two months of administering crude caffeine to mice bred to develop dementia reduces their Aβ(1-42) levels and the number of amyloid plaques in their hippocampuses, guarding primary neurons against Aβ-induced cell death and inhibiting Aβ-induced caspase-3 activity.

Eskelinen, M. H. & Kivipelto, M. (2010). Caffeine as a protective factor in dementia and Alzheimer's disease. Journal of Alzheimer's Disease: JAD, 20 Suppl. 1: S167-75. doi: 10.3233/JAD-2010-1404. [Abstract only]. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20182054

Three out of five longitudinal and epidemiological studies on caffeine and coffee and tea consumption and dementia support the idea that drinking coffee protects against cognitive decline. Two studies also note that drinking both coffee and tea helps prevent [or delay] dementia, although the benefits of drinking tea are “less evident” than those of drinking coffee. The CAIDE study associates drinking between three to five cups of coffee daily from midlife on with a 65 percent decrease in the risk of dementia later in life.

Gelber, R. P., Petrovitch, H., & Masaki, K. H., et al. (2011). Coffee intake in midlife and risk of dementia and its neuropathologic correlates. Journal of Alzheimer's Disease: JAD. 23(4), 607-15. doi: 10.5487/TR.2011.27.1.007. [Abstract only]. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21157028

After following 3,494 men whose average age was 52 in 1965-1968 until 1991 to 1993 and afterwards examining 418 brain autopsies, researchers have determined that coffee and caffeine intake in midlife lowers the odds of having any types of brain lesions upon autopsy. However,they didn't find any association between caffeine intake and the risk of cognitive impairment. Men who consumed the most caffeine were less likely to develop brain lesions of any type than those who consumed the least caffeine.

Santos, C., Luent, N., & Azevedo, A., et al. (2010). Caffeine intake is associated with a lower risk of cognitive decline: A cohort study from Portugal. Journal of Alzheimer's Disease: JAD. 20 Suppl 1:S175-85. doi: 10.3233/JAD-2010-091303. [Abstract only]. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20182036

Researchers associated with the Department of Hygiene and Epidemiology at the Porto University Medical School and Institute of Public Health found that caffeine intake of more than 62 milligrams. a day lowered the risk of cognitive decline in women, but not in men, after conducting a longitudinal study of 648 men and women 65 years or over between 1993 to 2003 and then conducting a follow-up study between 2005-2008. Researchers evaluated the seniors' cognitive health by administering a Mini-Mental State Examination and adjusted for risk factors, such as age, educational level, smoking, drinking habits, body mass index, hypertension, and diabetes.

You, D. C., Kim, Y. S., & Ha, A. W. et al. (2011,March). Possible health effects of caffeinated coffee consumption on Alzheimer's disease and cardiovascular disease. Toxicological Research. 27(1), 7-10. doi: 10.5487/TR.2011.27.1.007. [Abstract only]. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24278543

A South Korean review of epidemiological and experimental studies shows  that moderate doses of caffeine provide some protection against both cardiovascular disease and Alzheimer's.

Zhang, L. F., Zhou, Z. W., &Wang, Z. H. et al. (2014, December 24). Coffee and caffeine potentiate the antiamyloidogenic activity of melatonin via inhibition of Aβ oligomerization and modulation of the Tau-mediated pathway in N2a/APP cells. Drug Design, Development and Therapy, 9:241-72. doi: 10.2147/DDDT.S71106. [Abstract only]. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25565776

Since previous animal research indicates that coffee caffeine, and melatonin individually are beneficial in the treatment of Alzheimer's, researchers examined whether or not combining coffee (or caffeine) and melatonin produced a synergistic/addictive effect on amyloid-β (Aβ) protein. When researchers treated amyloid-(APP) cells with coffee or caffeine for 12 hours daily followed by melatonin for 12 hours each night, this significantly reduced extra-cellular levels of Aβ40/42 and Aβ42 oligomers. 

 However, when they treated the cells with coffee, or caffeine, plus melatonin for 24 hours from 7 a. m. to 7 a. m. the next day, this didn't remarkably effect the cells, and when when they treated the cells with coffee, or caffeine, plus melatonin for five consecutive days, this produced less of an antiamyloidogenic effect compared than the first experiment that only treated cells with caffeine during the day and with melatonin during the evening.

Popular Online Articles Explain How Coffee Protects Against Alzheimer's

Coffee has medicinal properties!

Aubrey, Allison. (2010, June 28). Nervous about Alzheimer's? Coffee may help. NPR. Retrieved from http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=128110552

Although several studies suggest that caffeine may protect against Alzheimer's, a cup or two a day isn't enough—500 milligrams of caffeine, or the equivalent of five cups of regular coffee, remains the recommended dosage (Aubrey, 2010, June 28, para.1).

Five Cups a Day

Gary Arendash, a researcher at the Florida Alzheimer's Disease Research Center at Florida State University, drinks five cups of coffee daily, convinced that this habit defends against the ravages of Alzheimer's (Aubrey, 2010, June 28, para. 3). When Arendash and his fellow researchers added caffeinated water to their Alzheimer's Disease-bred rats, the lab rats if administered enough caffeine performed better running mazes, and they also ended up with a 50 percent reduction in amyloid proteins in their brains (Aubrey, 2010, June 28, para. 4, 6, & 10).

The average American coffee drinker, however, imbibes only about one and a half cups of coffee daily--far below the level that might “confer protective benefits” (Aubrey, 2010, June 28, para. 7).

Not that the therapeutic results of any caffeine given animals necessarily translates into similar results in humans, although animal studies are “a good starting point” if scientists wish to research whether or not drinking lots of coffee reduces the risk of  developing Alzheimer's Disease (Aubrey, 2010, June 28, para. 8-9).

Observations of Coffee-loving Middle-Aged Folks

While Florida State University researchers have been studying the effects of caffeine on lab rats, other scientists have been collecting research that indicates that drinking lots of coffee is beneficial for middle-aged and older adults. For example, a Finnish study that followed 1,400 coffee drinkers for two decades found that those coffee lovers who drank between three to five cups of coffee daily in their 40s and 50's had a 65 to 70 percent reduced risk of developing Alzheimer's in their 70's (Aubrey, 2010, June 28, para. 12-14).

All the same, although smaller longitudinal studies have found similar results, Reisa Sperling, an Alzheimer's Researcher at Harvard University''s Brigham and Women's Hospital, hesitates before suggesting that epidemiological evidence proves that coffee prevents Alzheimer's since other factors might influence an individual's susceptibility. For instance, active, middle-aged adults might be drinking more coffee than couch potatoes (Aubrey, 2010, June 28, para. 15-17).

Coffee Drinking Can't Offset Genetic Risk

While regular exercise and proper nutrition gives some protection from Alzheimer's, no behavior or diet can completely cancel the risk of developing what is a genetic disease (Aubrey, 2010, June 28, para. 18).

Coffee and Caffeine. (2014, January 16). Alzheimer's Drug Discovery Foundation. Retrieved from http://www.alzdiscovery.org/cognitive-vitality/report/coffee-and-caffeine

Senior adults who drink “moderate” amounts of coffee (between three and five cups) are less likely to develop dementia as evidenced by studies of isolated cells, research on lab rats, and  longitudinal research on human subjects. However, it's best to consult a physician before starting a dietary regime that drastically increases coffee consumption (Alzheimer's Drug Discovery, 2014, January 16, para. 1).

Caffeine and Coffee

Because it's difficult to determine whether the caffeine in coffee or coffee's other components is more beneficial, drinking either regular or decaffeinated coffee may decrease the risk of death from cardiovascular disease (Alzheimer's Drug Discovery, 2014, January 16, para. 3).

Sources of Coffee and Caffeine

Almost all observational research on caffeine studies the effect of coffee on the brain: A cup of coffee contains between 60 to 18 milligrams of caffeine while a cup of tea contains just 30 to 45 milligrams; an ounce of chocolate contains one to 30 milligrams, and 12-ounce cans of energy drinks have between 25 to 60 milligrams of caffeine. Research, however has proven that energy drinks might produce “adverse health results”. Caffeine is also available as a dietary supplement is doses of 100 milligrams (Alzheimer's Drug Discovery, 2014, January 16, para. 5).

How Coffee and Caffeine Might Benefit the Brain

Caffeine temporarily increases the brain's activity by stimulating the central nervous system. Thus, moderate amounts of caffeine increase alertness and muscle coordination. Caffeinated and decaffeinated coffee both have antioxident and anti-inflammatory properties, so they may both protect against Alzheimer's (Alzheimer's Drug Discovery, 2014, January 16, para. 7).

Can It Prevent Dementia?

Although researchers haven't conducted any randomized trials, limited evidence suggests that drinking between three to five cups of coffee daily lowers the incidence of Alzheimer's disease in older adults, even though some studies haven't established any links between drinking coffee and preventing dementia. It's also not possible to determine whether an individual's lifestyle choices and hereditary is more likely to determine if he or she develops Alzheimer's Disease (Alzheimer's Drug Discovery, 2014, January 16, para. 8).

Can It Benefit Someone with Dementia or Mild Cognitive Disorder?

One longitudinal study that measured the blood caffeine levels in senior adults diagnosed with M.C.I. over a two to four-year period tentatively showed that those patients whose blood contained higher levels of caffeine were 50 percent less likely to develop dementia than those with lower levels of caffeine in their blood. However, these results didn't conclusively prove that drinking lots of coffee prevented them from developing Alzheimer's Disease, for other characteristics shared by those M.C.I. patients who didn't succumb to Alzheimer's might have produced this result (Alzheimer's Drug Discovery, 2014, January 16, para. 9-10).

Can It Slow or Delay Death?

Several large observational studies indicate that drinking coffee bestows cardiovascular benefits and helps prevent Type 2 diabetes, or else it ameliorate its effects, so drinking coffee might result in a longer life. On the other hand, some studies suggest that when an older adult drinks more than three cups of coffee daily, this raises the risk of death (Alzheimer's Drug Discovery, 2014, January 16, para. 11).

Is It Safe to Use as Directed?

Drinking two to four cups of coffee daily ordinarily is safe for healthy adults, although adults diagnosed with cardiovascular disease or high blood pressure should ask their doctor how much coffee they can safely drink each day. Pregnant women shouldn't consume more than 200 milligrams of coffee daily and those taking the muscle relaxant tizanidine (Zanaflex) or the anti-depressant fluvoxamine (Luvox) shouldn't drink any coffee. Coffee [particularly when drunk at night] can interfere with sleep patterns (Alzheimer's Drug Discovery, 2014, January 16, para. 12-13).

If You Are Considering Taking Coffee and Caffeine

Before drastically upping their coffee consumption, seniors should talk to their physician (Alzheimer's Drug Discovery, 2014, January 16, para. 14).

Coffee 'may reverse Alzheimer's'. (2009, July 5). BBC News. Retrieved from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/8132122.stm

Drinking 5 cups of coffee may reverse memory problems found in Alzheimer's disease (2009, July 5, para. 1).

Research with mice suggests that ingesting  caffeine restrains the development of the protein plaques that characterize Alzheimer's Disease. Even so, British experts advise that this doesn't mean that dementia patients should start taking caffeine supplements (2009, July 5, para. 2 & 4).

To determine whether the 55 mice aged 18 to 19 months old (or about 70 in human years) bred to develop dementia, showed signs of memory impairment, University of South Florida researchers administered behavioral tests before giving half the mice caffeine in their drinking water and half the mice plain water (2009, July 5, para. 5-6). The researchers then gave the caffeine-fed mice  the lab-rat equivalent of five, eight-ounce cups of coffee daily, or about the same amount of caffeine found in two latte or cappuccino cups of coffee, 14 cups of tea, or 20 soft drinks (2009, July 5, para. 7).

When researchers tested the two groups of Alzheimer's bred mice two months later, those mice with caffeinated water performed about the same as mice  that didn't show any signs of dementia and much better on memory tests [running mazes] than the Alzheimer's bred mice given plain water (2009, July 5, para. 8-9). The brains of those mice who received caffeine in their water also showed a nearly 50 percent decrease in their levels of beta amyloid protein (2009, July 5, para. 10).

Additional research indicates that caffeine reduces the creation of enzymes necessary to make beta amyloid protein as well as inhibiting inflammatory changes that over produce it. Moreover, when younger mice bred to develop Alzheimer's received caffeine in their drinking water from early adulthood, this prevented them from having memory problems (2009, July 5, para. 11-13).

'Safe Drug'

Gary Arendash, who led the University of South Florida research, claims that these results furnish evidence that caffeine might be a “viable treatment” for already diagnosed Alzheimer's Disease rather than just a preventive measure. Hence, his team of researchers hopes to replicate the results of their mice trials in humans (2009, July 5, para. 14).

4 surprising benefits of coffee. (2014, April 9). Alzheimer's.net. Retrieved from http://www.alzheimers.net/2014-04-09/benefits-of-coffee/

Coffee Can Delay the Onset of Alzheimer's

Even in senior adults showing signs of “mild dementia”, drinking three cups of coffee daily can delay Alzheimer's onset since caffeine blocks inflammation of the brain as shown in the brains of adults over age 65 who had high levels of caffeine in their blood (4 Surprising Benefits, 2014, April 9, para. 1-3).

Coffee Positively Affects Key Protein in Alzheimer's Disease.

Because caffeine is an adenosine receptor antagonist, it blocks receptors in the brain that contribute to the development and entanglement of tau protein, a protein that kills brain cells (4 Surprising Benefits, 2014, April 9, para. 4-5).

Coffee Boosts Brain Function and Memory.

A 2014 stud from the University of California found that adults who consumed 200 milligrams of coffee before taking a memory test scored much higher than controls. However participants given 300 milligrams of caffeine didn't do any better than those who consumed 200 milligrams of caffeine (4 Surprising Benefits, April 9, para. 6-9).

Coffee Can Protect Against Type 2 Diabetes, Which Can Lead to Alzheimer's

Compared with those individuals who didn't drink any coffee, those that drank six cups of either regular or de-caffinated coffee daily significantly lowered their risk of Type 2 diabetes. For every cup of regular coffee drunk daily, the risk of developing Type 2 diabetes decreases nine percent while for every cup of decaffinated coffee drunk daily, the risk of developing Type 2 diabetes drops six percent (4 Surprising Benefits, April 9, para. 9-10).

Mann, Denise. (2012, June 7). Drinking coffee may delay Alzheimer's disease. Web M. D. Retrieved from http://www.webmd.com/alzheimers/news/20120607/coffee-may-help-turn-tide-on-alzheimers-disease?page=2

Drinking three cups of coffee daily may delay Alzheimer's in adults over age 65 who are already showing signs of memory problems, so they develop Alzheimer's two to four years later than seniors with lower caffeine levels in their blood (Mann, 2012, June 7, para 1-2).

The study, which appears in the Journal of Alzheimer's Disease, looked at 124 adults aged 65 to 88 diagnosed with Mild Cognitive Impairment since 15 percent of seniors diagnosed with MCI go on to develop Alzheimer's each year (Mann, 2012, June 7, para. 3-4).

Levels of caffeine the the blood were 50 percent lower among seniors diagnosed with Alzheimer's compared to those who didn't go on to develop this disease. However, in this study, coffee remained the main, or only, source of caffeine (Mann, 2012, June 7, para. 5).

No participants diagnosed with MCI whose initial blood levels contained above 1,2000 ng/ml of caffeine, or equal to about three cups of coffee daily, went on to develop Alzheimer's (Mann, 2012, June 7, para. 6).

Chuanhai, Cao, a researcher at the University of South Florida's College of Pharmacy and the Byrd Alzheimer's Institute in Tampa, Florida, thus urges adults beginning in their mid-30's to start drinking at least three, eight-ounce cups of coffee each morning  (Mann, 2012, June 7, para. 7-8).

Coffee May Lower Alzheimer's Risk

Cao theorizes that with advancing age, the brain no longer metabolizes beta amyloid protein, so it builds up in the brain. Caffeine, however, inhibits the growth of this protein, so the brain absorbs it without turning it into plaque (Mann, 2012, June 7, para. 9-13). Research also shows that drinking significant amounts of coffee reduces the risk of Parkinson's, stroke, Type 2 Diabetes, and cancer (Mann, 2012, June 7, para. 14).

Could It Be Adult ADHD?

Sam Grundy a researcher at the Mount Sinai School of Medicine in New York City, makes the educated guess that Alzheimer's might be the senior adult equivalent of ADHD. Therefore, since caffeine increases attention, Grundy maintains that it improves memory while elevating cyclic AMP levels that reduce the accumulation of amyloid protein (Mann, 2012, June 7, para. 19).

Reynolds, Gretchen. (2013, June 6). This is your brain on coffee. Well. New York Times. Retrieved from http://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/06/06/this-is-your-brain-on-coffee/?_r=0

A University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign study published in 2012 briefly deprived mice of oxygen, causing them to lose their ability to form memories.  At this point, half the mice received a dose of caffeine equal to several cups of coffee. Mice rejuvenated with caffeine regained their ability to make new memories 33 percent faster than a control group that didn't receive any caffeine. Autopsies showed that caffeine disrupted the chemical reactions caused by adenosine, which can “jump start“ a biochemical cascade leading to inflammation when illness or accident injuries brain cells or if the brain is under stress (Reynolds, G., 2013, June 6, para. 3).

A 2012 study conducted by the University of South Florida and the University of Miami researchers tested blood levels in seniors with Mild Cognitive Disorder and then re-evaluated their mental health two to four years later and found that adults who in the original study had little or no levels of caffeine circulating in their blood stream had progressed to “full-blown" Alzheimer's compared with those seniors who drank three cups of coffee daily (Reynolds, G., 2013, June 6, para. 4).

In a 2011 study, University of South Florida researchers also found that mice bred to develop Alzheimer's and then given caffeine alone did less well on memory tests than those mice that drank coffee (Reynolds, G.,2013, June 6, para. 5).

Reynolds, Mark. (2014, November 27). Just THREE cups of coffee delay could clash the risk of Alzheimer's study finds. Express. Retrieved from http://www.express.co.uk/life-style/health/540506/Drinking-Coffee-Fights-Alzheimer-s-Risk

In a paper originally presented at the Alzheimer's Europe Conference in Glasgow, Scotland, in October 2014, researchers from the Institute for Scientific Information on Coffee linked “regular, lifelong moderate coffee consumption” with a reduced risk of developing Alzheimer's Disease (Reynolds, M., 2014, November 27, para. 2-5).

Researchers defined moderate coffee consumption as drinking from three to five cups daily, a dose necessary to achieve coffee's “optimum protective effect”, reducing the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease by 20 percent for a four-year period, presumably after showing signs of Mild Cognitive Disorder (Reynolds, M., 2014, November 27, para. 6-7).

Scientists theorize that the caffeine and polyphenol compounds found in coffee reduce inflammation and prevent the formation of amyloid plaque and its accompanying deterioration of the brain cells in the hippocampus and the cortex (Reynolds, M. 2014, November 27, para. 8-9). Nevertheless, Jess Smith, a researcher for the United Kingdom's Alzheimer's Society, cautions that this evidence is still inconclusive, so neuoscientists need to conduct additional clinical trials to determine how coffee can protect against Alzheimer's over a long period of time (Reynolds, M., 2014, November 27, para. 11).

Smith also warns that such factors as exercising regularly, eating a well-balanced diet, not smoking or drinking in excess, and managing health conditions all play a part in reducing the risk of developing Alzheimer's Disease, although Alzheimer's is a progressive disease with symptoms gradually becoming worse while strokes also cause dementia (Reynolds, M., 2014, November 27,para. 13-14).

Shah, Yagana. (2014, November 11). Regular coffee consumption could keep Alzheimer's at bay report says. Post 50. Huffington Post. Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/11/26/coffee-alzheimers-disease-risk-_n_6221436.html

Drinking coffee might curb the risk of Alzheimer's Disease on a short-term basis, according to a report issued by the Institute for Scientific Information on Coffee presented at Alzheimer's Europe Conference (Shah, 2014, November 11, para. 2). Researchers attribute coffee's antioxidant effect that reduces inflammation to the caffeine and polyphenol compounds found in coffee since they prevent the build up of protein that creates the plaque associated with Alzheimer's Disease (Shah, 2014, November 11, para. 4).

The study followed 5,000 participants between 1989 and 1991 and then followed-up on this research between 1997 and 2011, finding that those who drank more than three cups of coffee daily were less likely to develop dementia, although this protective effect weakened as the years went by (Shah, 2014, November 11, para. 5). A similar study published in 2012 found that while drinking three cups of coffee daily can't completely stop senior adults from developing Alzheimer's, it can slow the mental decline of patients diagnosed with Mild Cognitive Impairment (Shah, 2014, November 11, para. 8).

So What If I Don't Always Manage to Drink Three Cups of Coffee Daily? 


Added January 25, 2015

For those who don't get their coffee quota of three cups of coffee daily, drinking coffee is just one way to cut down one's risk of developing Alzheimer's Disease.  Moreover, drinking lots of coffee "isn't a get out of jail free" card since middle aged and older adults also need to adhere to a healthy diet, watch their weight, get in 30 minutes of aerobic exercise daily, and continue to exercise their minds.  Finally, remember that preventing dementia starts in childhood.

Forget Alzheimer's Disease: Remember these tips to avoid memory loss. (2013). The Daniel Plan. Retrieved from http://www.danielplan.com/healthyhabits/preventingalzheimers/

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The links furnished on this Web page represent the opinions of their authors, so they complement—not substitute—for a physician’s advice.

Warning: Consult an Oncologist Before Self-Medicating with Complementary & Alternative Medicines

Herbs, Special Diets, & Vitamin Supplements May Interfere with Chemotherapy

Consult a physician before using complementary and alternative medical treatments.

Evelyn E. Smith

M.S. in Library Science, University of North Texas (2012)

Cancer patients are increasingly turning to complementary and alternative medical (CAM) treatments, such as diet and vitamins, to augment their cancer treatments. Even if patients fear that their physician might try to persuade them not to use CAM, patients need to tell their oncologist about the non-prescription supplements they are taking and the diets they are following since these may interact adversely with chemotherapy. Conversely, all their physicians also need to ask them  if they are taking supplements and herbs or engaging in any complementary or alternative treatments. Indeed, anytime any patient takes herbal supplements, vitamins, or follows a special diet whatever his or her medical condition, he or she needs to check with a physician since these may interfere with a prescribed medication.


Different studies give contradictory evidence as to whether treatments like acupuncture and yoga helped relieve fatigue in cancer patients following chemotherapy treatments. Moderate to vigorous exercise might also help alleviate fatigue, depression, or anxiety. Almost all studies point out, however, that cancer patients with a university education are more likely to use CAM perhaps because this treatment helps them feel more in control of their well-being. Since most oncologists now accept that their well-educated patients are open to trying CAM, they usually work with them to integrate complimentary diet and exercise regimes with surgical, radiation, or chemotherapy treatments.

Alsanad, S. M., Williamson E. M., and Howard, R. L. (2014, August 26). Cancer patients at risk of herb/food supplement-drug interactions: A systematic review. Phytotherapy Research: PTR. doi: 10:1002/PTR.5213. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25158128

A survey of 818 articles using key words as well as a questionnaire submitted to 806 cancer patients determined that 53.7 percent were take some combination of supplements and drugs and that 167 incidents of risk had affected 13.9 percent of those surveyed.

Anderson, M.R., Sweet, E., and Lowe, K. A., et al. (2013, August). Dangerous combinations: ingestible CAM supplement use during chemotherapy in patients with ovarian cancer. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine (New York, New York), 19(8) 714-20. doi: 10.1089/acm.2012.0295. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23445210

Of 200 women in this study who reported using chemotherapy to treat ovarian cancer, 40 percent reported using one or more complementary or alternative medicine (CAM) supplements that could adversely interact with one or more of the chemotherapy medications they were also taking. Those who took multiple CAM supplements were of particular concern since these might cause adverse side effects, increase the toxicity of chemotherapy, or reduce its effectiveness.

Ernst, Edward. (2013, April 18). Cancer patients who use alternative medicines die sooner. Retrieved from http://edzardernst.com/2013/04/cancer-patients-who-use-alternative-medicine-die-sooner/

Studies show that cancer patients who use complementary and alternative (CAM) treatments to supplement traditional cancer therapies don't have [necessarily] higher survival rates than those who only follow regimes prescribed by their physicians. Instead a Korean study of 481 terminal cancer patients between July 2005 to October 2006 found that those who sought out CAM reported “worse cognitive functioning and fatigue (Ernst, 2013, April 18, para. 1 & 2). A Norwegian study of 515 terminal cancer patients over a five-year-period published in 2003 similarly found a higher death rate of 79 percent in patients who supplemented their treatments with CAM compared with a 65 percent death rate for those who didn't use CAM (Ernst, 2013, April 18, para. 3). Several reasons might account for these results: 1) Patients might ineffectively self-medicate with CAM; 2) some treatments [interacting with chemotherapy] might cause direct harm, and 3) those patients who use CAM “might, on average, suffer from more advanced cancers (Ernst, 2013, April 18, para. 4).

Finnegan, John J., Molassiotis, A., & Richardson, A., et al. (2013, July). A systematic review of complementary and alternative interventions for the management of cancer related fatigue. Integrative Cancer Therapies, 12(4): 276-90. doi: 10.1177/1534735413485816. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23632236

A systematic review of CAM interventions to relieve cancer-related fatigue after examining acupuncture, massage, yoga, and relaxation training offers limited evidence that hypnosis and ginseng might prevent the rise of cancer-related fatigue while acupuncture and bio-field healing may possibly reduced fatigue in the aftermath of cancer treatments. Taking multivitamins, however, has proved ineffective in relieving fatigue.

Fouladbakhsh, Judith M., Balneaves, Lynda, and Jenuwine, Elizabeth. (2013, September 1). Understanding CAM natural health products: Implications of use among cancer patients and survivors. Journal of the Advanced Practitioner in Oncology, 4(5): 289-306. [full text Online]. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4093439/

Cancer patients are increasingly turning to herbs, vitamins, and natural health products to ease pain, fatigue, insomnia, anxiety, and depression while not necessarily informing health care providers, thus leaving them prey to adverse interactions between complementary and alternative medications (CAM) and prescribed medication. Accordingly, the RN's authoring this informative article furnish an overview of alternative medications and their potential interactions (Abstract).

Garland,S. N., Valentine, D., and Desai, K;, et al. (2013, November). Complementary and alternative medicine use and benefit among cancer patients. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine (New York, New York), 19(11): 876-81. doi: 10.1089/acm.2012.0964. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23777242

A cross-sectional survey of 316 oncology patients indicates that 61.3 percent used complementary and/or alternative medications following their diagnosis. Factors most associated with CAM use were a college education, a breast cancer diagnosis, and being 12 to 36 months past the initial diagnosis. According to those surveyed, “energy healing” and “the healing arts” were the most beneficial treatments while special diets, herbal remedies, vitamins, and massage yielded fewer benefits. Acupuncture, chiropractic treatment, homeopathy, relaxation techniques, yoga, and ta chi didn't contribute to the patients' well being (Abstract).

Huebner, J., Prott, F. J.,and Micke, O., et al. (2014, May 12). Online survey of cancer patients on complementary and alternative medicine. Oncology Research and Treatment, 37(6), 304-308. doi: 10.1159/000362616. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24903760

An Online survey of German cancer patients found that 77 percent of those surveyed were using complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) with 63 percent of them informing their oncologist of this use. However, in 74 percent of these cases, the oncologist didn't take the time to discuss the use of these non-prescribed treatments. The patients most commonly used biologically-based therapies (supplements, herbs, and special diets), relaxation techniques, prayer, and medication to complement cancer treatment, seeking to reduce side effects of chemo- or radiation-therapy, “boost the immune system”, or “get active” (Abstract).

Kabel, A (2014, November 14). Fighting for wellness: Strategies of mid-to-older women living with cancer. Journal of Cross-culture Gerontology. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25391218

A significant percentage of older adult cancer patients rely of complementary and alternative (CAM) treatments particularly as they transition to a post-[chemotherapy and/or surgical] treatment phase of their cancer.

Mishra, Si, Scherer, R. W., and Snyder C., et al. (2012, August) Exercise interventions on health-related quality of life for people with cancer during active treatment. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 15(8): CDD08465. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD008465.pub 2. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23632236

Searching citations through the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, as well as publication like Pub Med/ MEDLINE as well as the Web of Science and Scopus, from their inception to November 2011, researchers determined that moderate and/or vigorous exercise was most likely to relieve anxiety in breast cancer survivors, although depression, fatigue, and sleep disturbances were more likely to decrease in cancers other than breast cancer.

Nissen, N. , Lunde, A., Pedersen, C. G., et al. (2014, October 10). The use of complementary and alternative medicine after the completion of hospital treatment for colorectal cancer: Findings from a questionnaire in Denmark. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 14 (388). doi: 10.1186/1472-6882-14-388. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25304122

A Danish study of patients who had completed hospital treatment for colorectal cancer found that of the 247 patients questioned, 49.4 percent had used some form of complimentary and alternative medicine (CAM) in the past month; and of these, 49.2 percent had used natural medications or dietary supplements only while 32 percent had also consulted an alternative therapist, and 18.9 percent had sought both treatments. Users of CAM were more likely to be women with high education levels who used these alternative treatments without the prompting of a physician. Indeed, 51 percent didn't disclose the use of CAM to their physicians while a physician only asked the patient about whether he or she was using CAM in only 8.5 percent of the cases (Nissen, 2014, October 10, Abstract).

Patel, V. H. (2014, November 14). Nutrition and prostate cancer: An overview. Expert Review of Anti-cancer Therapy, 14(11), 1295-304. doi: 10.1586/14737140.2014.972946. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25367323

Physicians have discovered a link between nutrition, lifestyle, and the development and progression of prostate cancer; for example, obesity and metabolic syndrome are key risk factors for prostate cancer as are the consumption of saturated and trans fats. At the same time, prostate patients are increasingly turning to complementary and alternative (CAM) treatments like vitamins and special diets. Thus, nutraceuticals and supplements have proved beneficial in the prevention and the recovery from prostate cancer (Patel, 2014, November 14, Abstract).

Smith, P. J., Clavarino, A., and Long, J. et al. (2014, March). Why do some cancer patients receiving chemotherapy choose to take complementary and alternative medicines and what are the risks? Asia-Pacific Journal of Clinical Oncology, 10 (1), 1-10. doi: 10.1111/ajco.12115. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23910177

Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM), such as herbs, vitamins, and special diets, that the body systematically absorbs are most likely to interfere with chemotherapy and potentially harm cancer patients. Cancer patients are most likely to ingest CAM to lessen chemotherapy's side effects, manage symptoms, or treat medical conditions unrelated to the diagnosis of cancer while a small percentage of patients decide to use CAM instead of chemotherapy, thus delaying conventional treatment. Family, friends, casual acquaintances, and even practitioners all may encourage the use of CAM. However, when researchers tested their use of these complementary or alternative treatments in rigorous chemical trials, no CAM alone showed any benefit beyond the use of a placebo, and with the exception of the use of ginger to treat chemotherapy-induced nausea, no compelling reason exists to override the risk of using CAM while undergoing chemotherapy, However, evidence exists that complementary mind-body therapies provide supportive care during chemotherapy.

Templeton,, A. J., Thurlmann, B., and Bauman, M., et al. (2013, March). Cross-sectional study of self-reported physical activity, eating habits and use of complementary medicine in breast cancer survivors. BMC Cancer, 13, 153. doi: 10.1186/1471-2407-13-153. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23530694

A cross-sectional study of Swiss breast cancer survivors whose breast cancer was caught early indicated that 69 percent reported the were physically active more than once weekly, taking a brisk 30-minute walk; 87 percent paid special attention to nutrition and were following a low-fat diet, and 46 percent had adopted complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) treatments. Factors influencing regularly taking part in physical exercise included using CAM, an older age, and fewer worries about the future whereas regular physical activity along with a university-level education were indicative of special attention to diet and routine brisk exercise. A university education and a lower age also pointed to the use of CAM. About half the patients questions were interested in learning more about complementary and alternative medical treatments and were also willing to take part in institutionally-sponsored, wellness programs.

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The links furnished on this Web page represent the opinions of their authors, so they complement—not substitute—for a physician’s advice.

Vitamin D May Prevent Alzheimer's & Dementia

Does Vitamin D-Deficiency

Result in Alzheimer’s & Other

Neurocognitive Disorders?

Evelyn Smith (M. S. in Library Science, University of North Texas, 2012)

 

The body’s delicate; [this] tempest in my mind

Doth from my senses take all feeling else . . . . 

King Lear III, iv, 13-14

Edited and Added to February 17, 2016

Medical Studies Linking Vitamin D Deficiency with Alzheimer’s

On August 6, 2014, the August issue of Neurology published a groundbreaking longitudinal study that linked the risk of developing Alzheimer’s and other dementias with low levels of vitamin D in the blood.  While correlation doesn’t equate with causation, this research publicized the use of vitamin D supplements and omega-3 fatty acid as possible means of delaying and/or preventing cognitive decline.   All of which also suggests that older adults need to up their intake of vitamin D as a preventive measure just as they need to get enough exercise, eat a healthy, balanced diet, and maintain a support group of close friends.

For an earlier take on the general benefits of vitamin D, go to Shining the light on the benefits of vitamin D. (2013, March 7).  STEM Library Science Blog.  Retrieved from https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=2149812825538872690#editor/target=post;postID=970504028190340250;onPublishedMenu=posts;onClosedMenu=posts;postNum=15;src=postname

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A Sampling of Bibliographic Sources on

Vitamin D Deficiency and Dementia

Littlejohns, T., Henley, W. E, & Lang, I. A., et al. (2014, August 6). Vitamin D and the risk of dementia and Alzheimer disease. Neurology. doi: 10.1212/WNL.0000000000000755 [Abstract only]. [Open Access via Neurology].  Retrieved from http://www.neurology.org/content/early/2014/08/06/WNL.0000000000000755.abstract

Researchers obtained blood samples from 1, 658 ambulatory older adults between 1992-1993 and 1999 as part of a Cardiovascular Health Study,  first obtaining serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration levels through liquid chromatography-tandemass spectrometry in 1992-1993 and then conducting a follow-up assessment in 1999 to determine if the participants had developed Alzheimer’s or dementia in the intervening years. They discovered that the 102 participants who had developed Alzheimer’s were severely deficient in vitamin D compared with those who had healthy amounts of vitamin D3 in their blood.  The research thus associated vitamin D deficiency with a “substantially increased risk” of Alzheimer’s and other types of dementia (Littlejohn, 2014, August 6, Abstract, para. 1-4).

An online publicity post publicizes, summarizes, and enumerates the findings of the August 2014 Neurology article:

Littlejohns, T., Soni, M., and Annweiler, C. et al. (2014). Vitamin D and incident Alzheimer’s Disease in the cardiovascular health cognition study.  [Abstract].  University of Exeter Medical School. Retrieved from https://medicine.exeter.ac.uk/media/universityofexeter/medicalschool/research/healthservicesresearch/docs/Littlejohns__AAIC_Poster.pdf

After collecting and analyzing blood samples for serum 25 (OH) D in a sample of adults who were age 64 or older in 1992-1993, researchers over a mean follow-up period of five to six years determined that the risk of Alzheimer’s was 60 percent higher in those participants whose blood was severely lacking in vitamin D [here the researchers round off the percentages]. Consequently, clinical trials are needed to tell whether vitamin D supplements prevents Alzheimer’s in older adults.  The study, however, needs to be studied within the context of previous research that also associates the risk of Mild Cognitive Impairment, late-onset Alzheimer’s, and other types of dementia in older adults with low levels of vitamin D3 in the blood.

Annweiler, C., and Bequchet, O. (2011). Vitamin D-mentia. Randomized clinical trials should be the next step. Neuroepidemiology, 37 (3-4), pp. 249-55. doi: 10.1159/000334177. [Free full text]. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22156654

Since taking vitamin D supplements might possibly stabilize Alzheimer's or prevent age-related cognitive decline, Annweiler and Bequchet call for randomized, clinical trials comparing the results of administering a vitamin D supplement and a placebo and their effects on cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's. Cross-sectional studies have associated Vitamin D intake from diet, sun exposure, and supplements have strengthened the hypothesis that Vitamin D preserves cognitive function, but they can't show the empirical evidence that proves a cause and effect link (Annweiler, Abstract only, p. 249).  

Annweiler C., Dursun E. and Féron F. et al. (2014, July 18). Vitamin D and cognition in older adults’: Updated international recommendations.  Journal of Internal Medicine. [Abstract only]. doi: 10.1111/joim.12279.  Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24995480

Hypovitaminosis D, or a deficiency in vitamin D, increases the risk of dementia in older adults, even though the testing for a lack of vitamin D shouldn’t be used as a diagnostic tool or bio-marker of Alzheimer’s at this time, according to researchers attending an international, invitational conference on “Vitamin D and Cognition in Older Adults”.  Nevertheless, adults over age 65 should be regularly screened for Vitamin D deficiency (Annweiler, 2014, July 18, Abstract, para. 1-4).

Annweiler, C., Fantino, B., and Schott, A. M., et al. (2012, July). Vitamin D insufficiency and mild cognitive impaimentcross-sectional association. Euuropean Journal of Neurology, 19 (7), pp.1023-29. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-1331.2012.03675.x. [Abstract only]. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22339714

After comparing community-dwelling, cognitively healthy individuals with those with subjective memory complaints, French researchers discovered that older women complaining of memory loss were more likely to have lower concentrations of low serum 25 hydroxyvitamin D in their blood (Annweiler, 2012, July, Abstract, p. 1023).

Annweiler, C., Llewellyn, D., J., and Beauchet, O. (2013). Low serum vitamin D concentrations in Alzheimer's disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Alzheimer's Disease: JAD, 33 (3), pp. 659-74. [Abstract only]. doi: 10.3233/JAD-2012-121432. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23042216

A Medline and PsycINFO search in May 2012 generated a meta-analysis that confirmed that adults diagnosed with Alzheimer's had lower serum levels of vitamin D levels in their blood that their matched controls (Annweiler, 2013, Abstract, p. 659).

Annweiler, C., Rolland, Y. and Schott, A. M., et al. (2012, November). Higher vitamin D dietary intake is associated with lower risk of Alzheimer's disease: A 7-year follow-up. The Journals of Gerontology. Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 67 (11), 1205-11. doi: 10.1093/gerona/gls107. [Abstract only]. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22503994

A Toulouse, France, cohort study divided 498 community-dwelling women, aged 75 and younger, who were free of vitamin D supplements, and measured their baseline vitamin D intake based upon a self-reported food-frequency questionaire. Those women with a lower baseline of Vitamin D intake were more likely to have developed Alzheimer's seven years later. Conversely, those women who reported a higher level of Vitamin D intake based on their dietary choices were less likely to be diagnosed with Alzheimer's (Annweiler, 2012, November, Abstract, p. 1205).

Assman, K. E., Touvier, M., and Andreeva,V. A., et al. (2015, May 28). Midlife plasma vitamin D concentrations and performance indifferent cognitive domains assessed 13 years later. The British Journal of Nutrition, 113 (10), pp. 1628-37. [Abstract only]. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25864611

After measuring concentrations of 25-Hydroxyvitamin D in plasma samples in French adults, aged 40 to 60 years between 1994 and 1995 and then evaluating their cognitive performance between 2007 to 2009, researchers discovered a positive association between sufficient Vitamin D intake in midlife and short-term working memory, although additional years of formal education might also equip better educated adults with a cognitive reserve (Assman, 2015, May 28, Abstract, p. 1628).

Annweiler C., Dursun, E. and Féron F. et al. (2014, July 18). Vitamin D and cognition in older adults’: Updated international recommendations.  Journal of Internal Medicine. [Abstract only]. doi: 10.1111/joim.12279.  Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24995480

Hypovitaminosis D, or a deficiency in vitamin D, increases the risk of dementia in older adults, even though the testing for a lack of vitamin D shouldn’t be used as a diagnostic tool or bio-marker of Alzheimer’s at this time, according to researchers attending an international, invitational conference on “Vitamin D and Cognition in Older Adults”.  Nevertheless, adults over age 65 should be regularly screened for Vitamin D deficiency (Annweiler, 2014, July 18, Abstract, para. 1-4).

Balion C., Griffith, L. E., and Strifler L., et al. (2012, September 25). Vitamin D, cognition, and dementia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurology, 79 (13), pp. 1397-405.  [Abstract].  Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23008220

After searching five English-language databases up to August 2010, researchers found 37 studies that found that vitamin D exerted a positive effect in preventing Alzheimer’s.  Conversely, this survey connected lower vitamin D levels with “poorer cognitive function” and a “higher risk of AD” (Balion, 2012, September 25, Abstract, p. 1397).

Brouwer-Brolsma, E. M., and deGroot, L.C. (2015, January). Vitamin D and cognition in older adults: An update of recent findings. Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care, 18 (1), pp. 11-6). doi: 10.1097/MCO.0000000000000114. [Abstract only]. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25225898

Recent research posits that vitamin D helps in the sending and creation of neurons as well as their synaptogenesis, the clearing of amyloid plaque, and the prevention of neuron death. Observational studies have also associated higher serum levels of vitamin D with better cognitive performance, although imaging studies and randomized trials are “scarce” (Brouwer-Brolsma, 2015, January, Abstract, p. 11).

Dickens, A. P., Lang, I. A, and Laga, K. M., et al. (2011, August). Vitamin D, cognitive dysfunction and dementia in older adults. CNS Drugs, 25 (8), pp. 629-39. doi: 10.2165/11593080-000000000-00000. [Abstract only]. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21790207

While medical science has long associated insufficient vitamin D with  osteoporosis and has recently correlated low levels of vitamin D with cancer, heart disease, stroke, and type-2 diabetes, recent research has associated low levels of vitamin D with an increased risk of cognitive dysfunction and Alzheimer's: For example, the risk of cognitive decline was 60 percent higher in Italian males with severely deficient vitamin D levels, and the risk of developing Alzheimer's was 41 percent higher in American men with low levels of vitamin D (Dickens, 2011, August, Abstract, p. 629).

Dursun E, Gezen-Ak D, & Yilmazer S. (2011). A novel perspective for Alzheimer's disease: Vitamin D receptor suppression by amyloid-β and preventing the amyloid-β induced alterations by vitamin D in cortical neurons. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 23 (2), pp. 207-19.  doi: 10.3233/JAD-2010-101377. [Abstract only]. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24413618

While Amyloid-β (Aβ) (or the amino acids that form  the amyloid plaques associated with Alzheimer’s) triggers gene mutations that result in the loss of the neurons that transmit messages within the brain, vitamin D protects neurons in the cerebral cortex by preventing cell damage and cell death (Dursun, 2011, Abstract, p. 207).

Cognitively normal and  brains filled with amyloid-beta plaque compared

Fiala, M. & Mizwicki, M. T. (2011). Neuroprotective and immune effects of active forms of vitamin D3 and docosahexaenoic acid in Alzheimer disease patients. Functional Foods in Health and Disease, 12, pp. 545-554. [Open Access].  Retrieved from http://www.functionalfoodscenter.net/files/48097603.pdf

Because the skin of older adults absorbs less sunlight than it did when they were younger, and/or they are less likely to send time in the sun, many older adults get less vitamin D than they did when they were younger, and they don’t eat enough fatty fish and fresh fruits and vegetables.  These factors might make them more susceptible to Alzheimer’s disease. Preventing Alzheimer’s disease therefore might in part boil down to simple changes in diet: Avoiding simple carbohydrates, like sugar, and  consuming more  complex carbohydrates, like green vegetables, whole grains, starches, and lentils, avoiding saturated fat, and regularly including vitamin D, which is mostly found in omega-3 fatty fish, in the diet. Vitamin D acts as a neuro-protective agent since it clears out amyloid-beta plaque and inhibits the process of amyloid-precursor protein, inflammatory toxics, and cell death. An increased consumption of vitamin D and fish oil might prevent the degeneration of neurons in the outer brain (Fiala, 2011, Abstract, p. 545).

Gezen-Ak, D., Yılmazer, S.,  and Dursun, E. (2014). Why vitamin D in Alzheimer's disease? The hypothesis.  Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 40 (2), pp. 257-69. doi: 10.3233/JAD-131970. [Abstract only]. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24413618

Researchers posit that vitamin D protects the nervous system, and they suggest that disrupting vitamin D pathways mimics amyloid pathology. Furthermore, they hypothesize that Alzheimer’s disease might be the result of a long-time hormonal imbalance wherein there is a deficiency in vitamin D (Gezen-Ak, 2014, Abstract, p. 257).

Gezen-Ak, D., Dursun, E., Yilmazer, S. (2012, December 19). Vitamin D inquiry in hippocampal neurons: consequences of vitamin D-VDR pathway disruption on calcium channel and the vitamin D requirement. Neurological Sciences, 34(8), pp. 1453-1458. doi: 10.1007/s10072-012-1268-6.  Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23250517

The vitamin D receptor (VDR) and the enzymes involved in activating the effects of vitamin D are most likely to affect the brain’s hippocampus. Here amyloid beta (Aβ) pathology depletes VDR protein depletion and disrupts vitamin D-VDR pathways.  Using rat embryos, researchers have determined that in older adults a greater gene expression of 24OHase and VDR might call for a "higher requirement of vitamin D" in the hippocampus to prevent cognitive decline (Gezen-Ak, 2012, December 19, Abstract, p. 1453).

Gezen-Ak, D., Dursun, E., & Bilgiç B, et al,. (2012, October 16). Vitamin D receptor gene haplotype is associated with late-onset Alzheimer's disease. Tohoku Journal of Experimental Medicine, 228 (3), 189-96.  Retrieved from http://aja.sagepub.com/content/26/7/511.abstract

The continuing degeneration of the neurons in the neo-cortex correlates with a high incidence of vitamin D deficiency, which also causes depression and impaired cognitive performance in late-onset Alzheimer’s.  Vitamin D3 improves cognitive function in patients with Alzheimer’s because of its active form of vitamin D3 metabolite and its receptor in the central nervous system (Gezen-Ak, 2012, October 16, Abstract, p. 228).

Kapoor, S.  (2014, August).  Influence of vitamin D consumption and levels on the development of psychiatric disorders. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 34 (4), pp. 538-539. doi: 10.1097/JCP.0000000000000169.  Retrieved from http://journals.lww.com/psychopharmacology/Citation/2014/08000/Influence_of_Vitamin_D_Consumption_and_Levels_on.32.aspx

Getting enough vitamin D not only prevents Alzheimer’s in the elderly, but an increased consumption of vitamin D by mothers during pregnancy and in infants during the first year of life might prevent schizophrenia in young adulthood most particularly in individuals of sub-Saharan African descent (Kapoor, 2014, August Abstract, p. 538).

Getting enough vitamin E is essential for health throughout life.

Llewellyn, D. J., Lang, I., and A. Lang, et al. (2010, July 12). Vitamin D and risk of cognitive decline in elderly persons.  Archives of Internal Medicine, 170 (13), pp. 1135-1141. doi. 10.1001/archintermed.2010.173.  [Open Access].  Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4053858/

Researchers have shown a correlation between low levels of vitamin D3 (25-hydroxyvitamin D) and an increased rise of cognitive decline in 858 Italian adults aged 65 and older between 1988 and 2006. They first took blood samples, testing for levels of vitamin D in the blood, and later asked volunteers questions from the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), and interviewed them in follow-up assessments every three years (Llewellyn, 2010, July 12, Abstract para. 2). This procedure associated low levels of vitamin D with progressive cognitive decline particularly in older women (Llewellyn, 2010, July 12, Abstract, para. 4).

Llewellyn, D. J., Lang, I. A., and Melzer, D. (2011, January). Vitamin D and cognitive impairment in the elderly U.S. population.  The Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 66S (1), pp. 59-65.  [Open Access]. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3011960/

Since recent European research has associated vitamin D deficiency with cognitive decline, this study investigated a possible tie between the lack of vitamin D in blood samples and dementia in adults in the United States aged 65 and older.  A nationally representative cross study of 3,325 non-institutionalized older American showed significantly lower levels of serum hydroxyl-vitamin D in those whose mental acuity testing disclosed increased cognitive impairment, shown by impaired immediate and delayed memory, problems with orientation and a lower attention span. These findings call for the exploration of a possible causal relationship between vitamin D deficiency and the onset of Alzheimer’s disease (Llewellyn, 2011, January, Abstract, para. 1-4).

Miller, J. W., Harvey, D. J., and Beckett, L. A., et al.  (2015, November).  Vitamin D status and rates of cognitive decline in a multiethnic cohort of older adults.  JAMA Neurology, 72(11), pp. 1295-1303.  doi.10.1001/jamameurol.2015.2115.  [Abstract only].  Retrieve from http://archneur.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=2436596

In a longitudinal, multi-ethnic study that took place between February 2002 and August 2010, research associated low vitamin D status with accelerated decline in episodic memory and executive functioning, most particularly in African American and Hispanic older adults.  However, Vitamin D status didn’t significantly affect semantic memory or visuospatial ability.

Pogge, E. (2010, July). Vitamin D and Alzheimer's disease: is there a link? Consultant Pharmacist, 25 (7), pp. 440-50. doi: 10.4140/TCP.n.2010.440. [Abstract only]. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20601349

After entering the key words vitamin D, Alzheimer disease, and Vitamin D in the Medline/ PubMed database for sources published between January 1950 and January 2010 and the ISI Web of Science database for articles published between January 1900 and January 2010 as well as reviewing The Cochrane Library and clinical trials.gov to identify unpublished research, Pogge determined that not only is vitamin D deficiency a widespread and long-standing problem in the elderly, but that researchers have recently linked it with dementia, and most particularly Alzheimer’s disease. Hence, Pogge calls on further trials with a longer follow-up period to determine if a cause and effect relationship exists between a lack of vitamin D in the blood and a diagnosis of Alzheimer’s (Pogge, 2010, July, Abstract, p. 440).

Schlögl, Mathias & Holick, Michael F. (2014). Vitamin D and neurocognitive function. Clinical Interventions in Aging, 9, pp. 559-588.  [Open Access].  Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3979692/

Recent emerging evidence has not only linked vitamin D deficiency with calcium-depleted bones and osteoporosis, but it has also correlated it with Mild Cognitive Impairment and late-onset Alzheimer’s. An increasing proportion of the elderly in developed countries with low levels of vitamin D in the blood, in turn, enhances the importance of these findings.  A lack of vitamin D in the diet along with a decreased inability for the skin to synthesize sunlight into vitamin D as individuals grow older results in this insufficiency (Schlögl, 2014, Abstract, p. 559).

Shah, I., Petroczi, A., & Tabet, N. (2012, November 9). Low 25OH Vitamin D2 levels found in untreated Alzheimer’s patients, compared to Acetylcholinesterase inhibitor treated and controls. Current Alzheimer Research, 9 (9), pp.1069-1076.  Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22876849\

This study contrasts the levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25-OH),  or calcidiol, in the blood of Alzheimer’s patients treated with acetylcholinesterase inhibitors as well as those Alzheimer’s patients not treated with donepezil, rivastigmine or galantamine, and a control group that didn’t show any signs of  cognitive impairment  The levels of 25-OH as well as  1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D, or calcitrol, were significantly lower in the untreated group when compared to those patients prescribed acetylcholinesterase inhibitors and their cognitively healthy controls. The reader will also find that browsing the interpretation of medical references on vitamin D and cognitive decline in popular, non-medical sources particularly helpful (Shah, 2012, November 9, Abstract, p. 1069).

 These comparisons also point out the occasional over simplification of complex medical issues, although some more insightful articles provide hyperlinks to PubMed abstracts and Open Access sources if their audience wants to verify or further explore a particular study’s findings. A comparison of these studies is important since it emphasizes that maintaining a high level of vitamin D is just one of the tactics that older adults might use to delay or prevent the onset of dementia, including getting enough physical exercise, not succumbing to depression, and striving for happiness with the help of a caring support group of friends. Western medicine, however, often forgets that a form of vitamin D3 is found in curcumin (turmeric), a key ingredient found in curry powder(Shah, 2012, November 9, Abstract, p. 1069).

See also: 

Mishra, S. and Palanivelu. (2008, January-March).  The effect of curcumin (turmeric) on Alzheimer’s disease.  Annals of Indian Academy on Neurology, 11 (1), pp. 13-19.  Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2781139/

Indian medicine has extensively studied curcumin (turmeric), for treatment of dementia and brain injury.  This antioxidant and anti-inflammatory herb used in curry powder improves the cognitive function of Alzheimer’s patients since it shrinks amyloid beta plaques, delays the breaking down of neurons, chelates heavy metal, and even improves memory (Mishra, 2008, January-March, Abstract, p. 13).

Mizwicki, M. T., Menegaz, D., and Zhang J, et al. (2012). Genomic and nongenomic signaling induced by 1α,25(OH)2-vitamin D3 promotes the recovery of amyloid-β phagocytosis by Alzheimer's disease macrophages. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 29 (1),  pp. 51-62. doi: 10.3233/JAD-2012-110560. Evidence Central [Abstract]. Retrieved from http://www.unboundmedicine.com/evidence/ub/citation/22207005/Genomic_and_nongenomic_signaling_induced_by_1%CE%B125_OH_2_vitamin_D3_promotes_the_recovery_of_amyloid_%CE%B2_phagocytosis_by_Alzheimer's_disease_macrophages_

Type 1 Vitamin D3 receptors block amyloid-beta plaque from forming while bisdemethoxy-curcumin (BCC) promotes the engulfing, or phagocytosis, of amyloid beta protein, by type 1 macrophages, or immune cells (Mizwicki, 2012, Abstract, p. 51).

Phagocytosis
____________

Popular Resources Connecting Vitamin D Deficiency with Alzheimer’s & Dementia

Vitamin D flushes out amyloid-beta plaques from the brain.

Alzheimer’s Prevention. (n. d.). Alzheimer’s Research Center. Retrieved from http://www.alzheimersinfo.org/prevention.html

Vitamin D deficiency is common in older adults because of the skin’s reduced ability to synthesize sunlight into vitamin D.  Research associates higher levels of vitamin D with a reduced risk of Alzheimer’s.  Older adults may therefore need to supplement their diet with 800 IU of vitamin D daily (as compared to a recommended adult dose of 400 IU), but they should check with their physician first (Alzheimer’s Prevention, n. d., para. 6).   However, taking vitamin D supplements is just one of the steps to prevent Alzheimer’s:

• Keeping physically active since research shows a link between cardio-respiratory fitness and a healthy hippocampus, the area of the brain responsible for memory (Alzheimer’s Prevention, n. d., para. 1).

• Exercising the brain and keeping socially active because this strengthens the links between brain cells (Alzheimer’s Prevention, n. d., para. 2).Eating healthy, unsaturated, un-hydrogenated fats to ensure cardiovascular health as well as including in the diet plenty of green vegetables, like spinach and beans, that are rich in folic acid, and consuming fortified cereals, meat, and liver for vitamin B12 (Alzheimer’s Prevention, n. d., para. 3).

• Getting enough vitamin E and C in the diet is important because this reduces the risk Alzheimer’s by controlling the damage produced by free radicals (Alzheimer’s Prevention, n. d., para. 5).  Consumers can find Vitamin E in meat, poultry, eggs, fruits, and vegetables, and wheat germ, and they may also take it as a supplement (Vitamin E, 2009, Web M.D., para. 1). 
• They can also get enough vitamin C by drinking one glass of [red] wine or beer daily whereupon resveratrol will also decrease levels of amyloid plaque (Alzheimer’s Prevention, n. d., para. 6).

See also:

Vitamin E. (2009). Find a vitamin or supplement. Web M.D.  Retrieved from http://www.webmd.com/vitamins-supplements/ingredientmono-954-vitamin%20e.aspx?activeingredientid=954&activeingredientname=vitamin%20e

Web M.D. tells the reader almost everything h or she needs to know about Vitamin E.

Vitamin E is found in foods and available as a supplement.

Li, D., Gong, Q., & Dong, H, et al. (2012). Resveratrol, a neuro-protective supplement for Alzheimer's disease. Current Pharmaceutical Design, 18 (1), pp. 27-33.  [Abstract only]. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22211686

In 1992 research showed that resveratrol proved beneficial in preventing coronary heart disease.  Subsequent research also indicates that it may be useful in treating and deferring cardiovascular disease, certain cancers, pain, inflammation, tissue injury, and Alzheimer’s disease since it clears amyloid beta peptides and reduces neuron damage. Resverastrol is found not only in grapes, but it is also in berries and peanuts (Li, 2012, Abstract, p. 27).

Note:  Resveratrol deserves its own bibliography, so keep checking back to this STEM Library Science blog!

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Anderson, Pamela. (2012, September 12). Low vitamin D linked to Alzheimer’s Disease. Medscape, pp. 1-3.  Retrieved from http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/771782#3

Sufficiently encouraging results exist in longitudinal studies linking lower concentrations of vitamin D to Alzheimer’s to warrant further clinical trials to determine if a cause and effect relationship exists between low concentrations of vitamin D in the blood and the incidence of Alzheimer’s, according to Cynthia Balion, a biochemist  at McMaster University in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. Balion and her colleagues searched Medline, Embase, Amed, PsychINFO, and the Cochrane Central databases for diagnostic criteria and came up with 37 studies showing a link between Alzheimer’s and lower levels of vitamin D, of which 30 included only older participants (Anderson, 2012, September, p. 1).

Although Balion stressed a need for standardized methods of measuring 25OH Vitamin D3, a second meta-analysis revealed that older adults with higher than average Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) scores also had higher concentration of vitamin D3 in their blood.  This implies that vitamin D acts as a meurosteroid (Anderson, 2012, September, p. 2).  Balion therefore advises that physicians should recommend vitamin D supplements for patients who do not have enough vitamin D in their blood, even though results of such blood tests are influenced by latitude, the time of year, and ethnicity (Anderson, 2012, September, p. 3).

Bakalar, Nicholas. (2014, August 14). Vitamin D tied to Alzheimer's risk. Well. New York Times. Retrieved from http://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/08/14/vitamin-d-tied-to-alzheimers-risk/?_r=0

A University of Exeter follow-up study that controled for dementia risk factors like age, educational level, gender, BMI, smoking, alcohol use, diabetes, and hypertension in a sample size of 1,658 cognitively and physically healthy men and women with the average age of 73 at the start of the original study found that low levels of vitamin D in the blood increased the risk of Alzheimer's and other types of dementia: Compared with those older adults with 50 or more nanomoles per liter of vitamin D in their blood, those with levels of 25 to 50 nanomoles per liter had a 53 percent increased risk of dementia and a 69 percent increased risk for Alzheimer's while those with readings of 25 or less of vitamin D in a liter of blood were twice as likely to develop Alzheimer's (Bakalar, 2014, August 14, para. 1-3). Senior Lecturer Iain A. Lang at the University of Exeter, however, cautioned that these “exciting and suggestive” results were only “observational” (Bakalar, 2014, August 14, para. 5).

Chan, Amanda L. (2012, March 8). Vitamin D and Alzheimer’s: Study shows how the nutrient can help the brain ward off any amyloid plaques. Healthy Living. Huffington Post.  Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/03/08/vitamin-d-alzheimers-amyloid-beta-plaque-protein_n_1326952.html

A recent released study shows that vitamin D may clear amyloid plaque by activating certain genes that signal cell networks to “ramp up” the immune system (Chan, 2012, March 8, para. 1 & 2). Taking blood samples from individuals diagnosed with Alzheimer’s and cognitively healthy participants, scientists separated the immune cells responsible for unblocking amyloid beta protein (Chan, 2012, March 8, para. 4).  A similar 2009 study found that vitamin D3 coupled with the spice curcumin worked together to unclog amyloid beta plaque while 2010 research demonstrated that lower levels of vitamin coincide with a higher risk of cognitive decline (Chan, 2012, March 8, para. 5-6).

Dockterman, Eliana. (2014, August 7). Low vitamin D increases risk for dementia and Alzheimer’s study says.  Time.  Retrieved from http://time.com/3089339/study-research-vitamin-d-deficiency-dementia-alzheimers/

Research shows a correlation not a causal link that exists between low levels of vitamin D and Alzheimer’s and other dementias.  Nevertheless, a study published August 6, 2014 in Neurology and summarized above hypothesizes that older adults with moderate to severe vitamin D deficiency are “significantly more likely” to develop dementia in (Dockterman, 2014, August 7, para. 1-2 & 4).

This six-year, longitudinal study found that is a sample size of 1,658 Americans age 65 and older, participants who were moderately deficient in vitamin D were 53 percent more likely to be diagnosed with any form of dementia while those severely deficient were 125 percent more likely to develop Alzheimer’s (Dockterman, 2014, August 7 para. 3).  The project’s leader, David Llewellyn of the University of Exeter Medical School, emphasized that clinical tests still need to establish whether or eating oily fish or taking vitamin D supplements might best prevent or delay Alzheimer’s and other dementias (Dockterman, 2014, August 7, para. 5).

Doheny Kathleen. (2014, August 11). Low Vitamin D levels may boost Alzheimer's risk. WebMD. Retrieved from http://www.webmd.com/alzheimers/news/20140806/low-vitamin-d-levels-may-boost-alzheimers-risk-study-finds

University of Exeter Medical School researchers correlated dementia with the severity of Vitamin D deficiency when they revisited the U.S. Cardiovascular Health Study of 1,600 adults over age 65 that took place between 1992-1993 and 1999 and compared the blood samples that analyzed Vitamin D content in blood plasma with the participants mental acuity six or more years later. However, the study's findings weren't strong enoung to recommend that older adults take Vitamin D supplements, for their analysis didn't prove a cause and effect link. Thus, researchers as of yet don't know whether upping one's dietary intake of Vitamin D or getting more sun exposure would help (Doheny, 2014, August 11, para. 1-5 & 8). Nevertheless, this comparative study does build on evidence that Vitamin D maintains strong bones, moderates cell growth, controls immune functions, and lessens inflammation (Doheny, 2014, August 11, para. 7).

Researchers discovered that low levels of Vitamin D corresponded with a 1.7 great risk of developing dementia while severely low levels of Vitamin D increased the changes of developing Alzheimer's 2.2 times (Doheny, 2014, August 11, para. 10). While sun exposure provides the body with Vitamin D, it is also found in fatty fish, like salmon, tuna, and mackerel, as well as in milk, eggs, and cheese. Experts nevertheless disagree about the optimal level of Vitamin D in the blood, but they do agree that the risk of dementia significantly increases when it falls below 50 nanometers per liter (Doheny, 2014, August 11, para. 9 & 11).

Fenner, James. (2013, December 4). Vitamin D deficiency linked to brain damage, says study.  Guardian Liberty Voice.  Retrieved from http://guardianlv.com/2013/12/low-vitamin-d-levels-linked-to-brain-damage-says-study/

Fenner summarizes a collection of studies linking vitamin D deficiency with brain damage, including a contemporize University of Kentucky study published in Freeradical Biology and Medicine (2013, December 4, para. 1). Vitamin D is a fat soluble hormone found in fatty fish, cheese, egg yolks, and fortified mil, and cereal, although the body soaks up most of its store of vitamin D when the sun’s rays strike the skin (Fenner, 2013, December 4, para. 2). 

Vitamin D performs multiple functions:

• Vitamin D helps the body absorb and maintain calcium levels that build strong bones;
• It regulates genes that control cell division and death;
• It inhibits inflammation and neuromuscular damage;
• It also imparts immunity from various diseases.

       (Fenner, 2013, December 4, para. 3) 

Additionally, vitamin D may also protect the brain from free radical damage, according to a series of trials wherein researchers administered middle-age male-rats for four-or-five-months low concentrations of vitamin D versus merely adequate and abundant amounts of vitamin D. The rats given the most Vitamin D excelled at cognitive tests while those given a diet deficient in vitamin D didn’t perform as well (Fenner, 2013, December 4, para. 4-8).  Poverty, latitudes with little or no sunlight, working indoors for long periods of time, sedentary life styles, and age may all aggravate vitamin D deficiency (Fenner, 2013, December 4, para. 9).

Previous studies have linked vitamin D deficiency, or hypovitaminosis, with a higher incidence of Alzheimer’s, and most recently they have correlated a lower level of vitamin D in the blood of Alzheimer’s patients when compared to their cognitively healthy peers (Fenner, 2013, December 4, para. 10).  A 2011 Lu’o’ng and Nguyễn study also found that low levels of Vitamin D could set off “mood problems and cognitive impairment” (Fenner, 2013, December 4, para. 11).

Other studies have established a link between vitamin D deficiency and certain cancers, cardio-vascular conditions, osteoporosis, and rickets (Fenner, 2013, December 4, para. 12)   Fenner thus recommends a diet rich in vitamin D and getting at least 10 to 15 minutes of direct sunlight daily. However, patients should consult their physician to check for vitamin D levels and ask him or her about taking supplements (Fenner, 2013, December 4, para. 13).

A link exists between depression, low-levels of vitamin D, and Alzheimer's.

Fischer, Kristen. (2014, August 6). Depression, low vitamin D major risk factors for dementia. Health News.  Healthline.  Retrieved from http://www.healthline.com/health-news/depression-and-vitamin-d-080614 

Two articles published in the August 6, 2014 issue of Neurology have established a connection between a deficiency in vitamin D and Alzheimer’s as well as an association between depression and cognitive decline.  However, the study that has received the most publicity, Littlejohns, Henley, and Lang’s, et al, “Vitamin D and the Risk of Dementia and Alzheimer Disease”, which is summarizes above, theorizes that older adults that don’t get enough vitamin D double their risk of Alzheimer’s (Fischer, 2014, August 6, para. 1-2). The leader of this team of researchers, David J. Llewellyn of the University of Exeter explains that the researchers found the association ended up "twice as long as anticipated" (Fischer, 2014, August 6, para. 4).  

The leader of this team of researchers, David J. Llewellyn of the University of Exeter, explains, “We expected to find an association between low vitamin D levels and the risk of dementia and Alzheimer's disease, but the results were surprising — we actually found that the association was twice as strong as we anticipated” (Fischer, 2014, August 6, para. 4). Moreover, these results did not vary even when researchers adjusted them for other risk factors, such as smoking, alcohol consumption and level of formal education (Fischer, 2014, August 6, para. 6).  Llewellyn, however, cautioned that further studies would need to reveal whether vitamin D supplements or eating foods high in vitatim D would best delay or prevent dementia (Fischer, 2014, August 6, para. 7). He also emphasized that a correlation between low levels of vitamin D with the presence of Alzheimer's does not necessarily prove that a vitamin D deficiency causes cognitive decline (Fischer, 2014, August 6, para. 8).

Osteoporosis is another reason to get enough Vitamin C.

Llewellyn nevertheless acknowledges that past trails have shown that boosting vitamin D has proven effective in treating other health problems; for example, increasing the intake of vitamin D prevents bone fractures.  Accordingly, the elderly should eat a balanced diet that includes regularly eating oily fish as well as maintain an active lifestyle, and going outdoors regularly for moderately intensive exercise (Fischer, 2014, August 6, para. 9-10).

In a related Rush University Medical Center study, also published in the August 2014 issue of Neurology, Wilson, Capuano, and Boyle’s, “Clinical-pathologic Study of Depressive Symptoms and Cognitive Decline in Old Age”, researchers showed that the elderly who suffer from depression have a greater risk of developing Alzheimer’s in a study that followed 1,764 volunteers for eight years.  Those who were eventually diagnosed with dementia or mild cognitive impairment were more likely to be depressed before their diagnosis of cognitive decline (Fischer, 2014, August 6, para. 11-12).

Consequently, since these findings suggest that depression is a risk factor for dementia, if depression and stress can be prevented or successfully treated, medical science may be able to help the elderly keep their memories and ability to think and reason, according to Rush Alzheimer’s Disease Center neuropsychologist, Robert S. Wilson (Fischer, 2014, August 6, para. 13).

Fischer also provides a hyperlink for the study that connects depression and dementia:

Wilson, R. S., Capuano, Ana W., Boyle, P. A. (2014, July 30). Clinical-pathologic study of depressive symptoms and cognitive decline in old age.  Neurology.  doi: 10.1212/WNL.0000000000000715.  Retrieved from http://www.neurology.org/content/early/2014/07/30/WNL.0000000000000715.short?rss=1

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Glatter, Robert. (2014, August 7). Dementia risk and vitamin D levels: Is there a connection? Forbes. Retrieved from http://www.forbes.com/sites/robertglatter/2014/08/07/dementia-risk-and-vitamin-d-levels-is-there-a-connection/

Vitamin D deficiency may double the risk of cognitive decline and loss of memory, according  to a study published online in Neurology on August 6, 2014 (Glatter, 2014, August 7, para. 13).  After evaluating levels of vitamin D in the bloodstream of 1,658 healthy adults over age 65, researchers expected to find a link between low levels of vitamin D and the ability to think, remember, and reason, but the association proved twice as strong as they anticipated (Glatter, 2014, August 7, para. 4-5). Vitamin D deficiency may double the risk of cognitive decline and loss of memory, according to a study published online in Neurology on August 6, 2014 (Glatter, 2014, August 7, para. 13).

After evaluating levels of bloodstream in the bloodstream of 1,658 healthy adult volunteers over age 65, researchers expected to find a link between low levels of vitamin D and the ability to think, remember, and reason, but the association proved twice as strong as they had anticipated (Glatter, 2014, August 7, para. 4-5). Thus, individuals with comparatively low levels of vitamin D were 53 percent more likely to develop memory and reasoning problems while those with a “significant deficiency” stood a 125 percent better chance of developing dementia compared to individuals with normal levels of vitamin D (Glatter, 2014, August 7, para. 6).

Indeed, those individuals whose blood contained low levels of vitamin D had a 70 percent greater risk of developing Alzheimer’s while those with the severest deficiency in vitamin D increased their chances of being diagnosed with Alzheimer’s by 120 percent even when researchers controlled for other risk factors (Glatter, 2014, August 7, para. 7-8). 

Further clinical trials might establish whether eating oily fish or taking vitamin D supplements might best prevent or delay Alzheimer’s, although the study doesn’t actually show that low levels of vitamin D cause Alzheimer’s or other dementias (Glatter, 2014, August 7, para. 9-10). This means that a multifaceted approach to preventing Alzheimer’s is necessary since diet, lifestyle, and genetic factors might all influence its development.  Even so, “good levels of vitamin D” might help prevent the accumulation of amyloid plaque (Glatter, 2014, August 7, para. 11-12).

Two weekly servings of omega 3 fatty fish builds-up vitamin D levels.

Gray, Nathan. (2013, February 12). Omega-3 and vitamin D hay help clear Alzheimer’s plaques.  Nutraingredients.com. Retrieved from http://www.nutraingredients.com/Research/Omega-3-and-vitamin-D-may-help-clear-Alzheimer-s-plaques

A pilot study published in the Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, University of California, Los Angeles, has announced that researchers have discovered the key gene that lies behind vitamin D3 and omega-3’s ability to rid the  brain of the amyloid plaque associated with Alzheimer’s, Cyactiv, a blue antioxidant that  gives off a “healthy inflammation response” (Gray, 2013, February 12, para. 1-7). Additionally, they have established that individuals with Alzheimer’s have a different inflammatory gene than healthy controls (Gray, 2013, February 12, para. 9).

Drawing blood from both individuals diagnosed with Alzheimer’s and cognitive-healthy older adults, researchers have also isolated critical immune cells, called macrophages, after incubating the immune cells overnight with amyloid-beta and then adding either an active form of vitamin D3 or omega 3 fatty acid whereupon they determined the effect these substances had on inflammation and amyloid-beta absorption.   Both vitamin D3 and omega-3 fatty acid improved the ability of the immune cells to break down amyloid beta and inhibit cell death (Gray, 2013, February 12, para. 12-13).  These findings might indicate that future Alzheimer’s treatment might need to balance vitamin D supplements and the consumption of omega 3 fatty acid, although a larger sampling size and clinical trials is necessary to confirm these findings (Gray, 2013, February 12, para. 16-18).

Kinkle, Frederick. (2014, August 6). Researchers say vitamin D deficiency raises Alzheimer’s risk.  The Washington Post.  Retrieved from http://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/researchers-say-vitamin-d-deficiency-raises-alzheimers-risk/2014/08/06/ed278fde-1da1-11e4-82f9-2cd6fa8da5c4_story.html

An international team of researchers led by David J. Llewellyn of the University of Exeter Medical School has determined that adults over age 65 who are evenly moderately deficient in vitamin D stand a 53 percent greater risk of dementia while those with a severe vitamin D deficiency raise their risk of developing Alzheimer’s 125 percent. Furthermore, those found to be moderately deficient in vitamin D are 69 percent more likely to develop Alzheimer’s while those with the lowest levels of vitamin D in their blood are 122 percent more likely to do so (Kinkle, 2014, August 6, para. 2).  The risk of dementia rises for levels of vitamin D in the blood below 25 nanomoles per meter while vitamin D levels above 50 nanomoles signify a sufficient level of vitamin D to maintain cognitive health (Kinkle, 2014, August 6, para. 3).

While the researchers acknowledge that dementia might alter behavior or diet in a way that might contribute to vitamin D deficiency, they suggest this is unlikely (Kinkle, 2014, August 6, para. 4).  Even so, they admit that further study needs to determine whether consuming oily fish or taking vitamin D supplement might best prevent Alzheimer’s. Research, however, already suggests that vitamin D might regulate calcium levels in brain cells (Kinkle, 2014, August 6, para.5- 6).  Vitamin D helps the body use calcium when skin is exposed to sunlight. Experiments also show that vitamin D might help rid brain cells of beta-amyloid plaque, breaking down and carrying it away Kinkle, 2014, August 6, para. 9-10).

Pash, Chris. (2014, August 6). A strong link between vitamin D deficiency and Alzheimer’s risk has been confirmed.  Business Insider Australia.  Retrieved from http://www.businessinsider.com.au/a-strong-link-between-vitamin-d-deficiency-and-alzheimers-risk-has-been-confirmed-2014-8/

“The most robust study of its kind ever conducted” published in the August 6, 2014 issue of Neurology has documented that older adults who are severely deficient in vitamin D are twice as likely to develop Alzheimer’s and other dementias (Pash, August 6, para. 1-2 & 5). Studying older Americans who took part in the Cardiovascular Health Study, an international team of researchers found that older adults moderately deficient in vitamin D had a 53 percent chance of developing dementia of any kind, but the severely deficient in vitamin D raised their risk 125 percent.  Those moderately deficient in vitamin D raised their risk of developing Alzheimer’s 69 percent while those severely deficient in vitamin D had a 122 percent greater risk of eventually being diagnosed with Alzheimer’s (Pash, 2014, August 6, para. 3).  Suffering from depression only adds to the risk of developing Alzheimer's since previous researchers have established that individuals with low levels of vitamin D are more likely to develop mental illnesses (Pash, 2014, August 6, para. 13).  The exposure of skin to sunlight produces vitamin D, which is also found in oily fish and supplements, but older skin is less efficient than youthful skin in converting sunlight to vitamin D (Pash, 2014, August 6, para. 14-15).

Pederson, Traci. (2012, March 9). Vitamin D explored as Alzheimer’s treatment. Psych  Central. Retrieved from http://psychcentral.com/news/2012/03/09/vitamin-d-explored-as-alzheimers-treatment/35774.html

Vitamin D3 may turn on certain genes to jump start the immune system to flush out the amyloid beta plaques that form in the cerebral cortex of Alzheimer’s patients (Pederson, 2012, March 9, para.1-2).  Prior research shows that these immune cells respond favorably to vitamin D3 and curcumin, a turmeric spice; however, this particular study clarifies the mechanism involved in this action by taking blood samples from Alzheimer’s patients and healthy controls and then isolating their macrophages, or immune cells, incubating them with amyloid beta amino acids and then introducing an active form of vitamin D3 to see whether it absorbed the amyloid beta peptides (Pederson, 2012, March 9, para. 2 & 4-5).

Apparently, two types of macrophages exist: 

• Type 1 clears amyloid beta amino acids after researchers introduce a solution of vitamin D3 and curcuminoids, a synthetic form of curcumin.  

• Type 2 immune cells, however, are found in vitamin D3 alone. 

In both types of macrophages, vitamin D3 opens a specific chloride channel (CLC3) that clears out amyloid beta peptides (Pederson 2012, March 9, para. 6-7 & 9). Thus, the vitamin D3 found in Omega 3 fatty fish and in turmeric (or curcumin), which is an ingredient in curry recipes, may help clear out amyloid plaques (Pederson, 2012, March 9, para. 8).  Some authorities recommend taking Vitamin D and curcumin together since Vitamin D  boosts curcumin's effectiveness.

Turmeric is a common ingredient in curry recipes.

Rodriguez-Paez, Maylin. (2011). Can curry help prevent Alzheimer’s disease? Life Extension. Retrieved from http://blog.lef.org/2014/03/can-curry-help-prevent-alzheimers.html

Indians in their 70s are four times less likely to have Alzheimer’s than their American counterparts are, and curry dishes, made with turmeric (curcumin) may contribute to their mental health (Rodriguez-Paez, 2011, para. 2-5). The curcumin keeps amyloid beta molecules from clumping together and disrupts them once they form. Curcumin, a strong antioxidant, also reduces the amount of free radicals that destroy brain neurons, and it removes heavy metals from the blood stream (Rodriguez-Paez, 2011, para. 10-11).

Turmeric. (2014) Find a vitamin or supplement. Web MD. Retrieved from http://www.webmd.com/vitamins-supplements/ingredientmono-662-TURMERIC.aspx?activeIngredientId=662&activeIngredientName=TURMERIC

Turmeric (curcumin), the primary spice found in curry, is also widely used as an Indian folk remedy to treat a wide variety of ailments since it is thought to decrease swelling or inflammation (WebMD, 2014, para. 1-3 & 7).

Curcumin and its effect on Alzheimer’s deserves its own bibliography entry in the STEM Library Science blog. 

See also: 

Curcumin: From folk medicine to a possible cure for Alzheimer's. (2015, August 15).  Retrieved from http://evelynsmithsstemscienceblog.blogspot.com/2015/08/curcumin-from-fok-medicine-to-possible.html

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Pettersen, J. A. (2015, December 27). Vitamin D and executive functioning. Are higher levels better? Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, pp. 1-11. [E-pub ahead of print]. [Abstract only]. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26708262

In a study of 142 healthy adults, research found that those with “supra-therapeutic levels” of Vitamin D in their blood performed “significantly better" on verbal fluency tests (Pettersen, 2015, December 27, Abstract, p. 1).

Pettersen, J. A., Fontes, S., and Duke, C. L. (2014, July). The effects of Vitamin D insuficiecy and seasonal decrease in cognition. The Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences, 41 (4), pp. 459-69. [Abstract only]. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24878470

After testing the working memory of 32 healthy adults and assessing the levels of Vitamin D in their blood in both the summer and winter, they found that while 46 percent of those with low Vitamin D performed poorly on memory tests in the summer, in the winter, 63 percent had insufficient levels of Vitamin D in their blood, and their memory skills had also declined. Thus, researchers concluded that adults need to maintain their vitamin D levels year round (Pettersen, 2014, July, Abstract, p. 459).

Philip, John. (2013, October 24). Little known form of vitamin D holds key to Alzheimer’s disease prevention. Natural News. Retrieved from http://www.naturalnews.com/042632_vitamin_d3_alzheimers_prevention_prohormone.html#

Researchers are finding that the same lifestyle changes that thwart heart disease also prevent Alzheimer’s (Philip, 2013, October 24, para. 1).  In recent years, researchers have verified that turmeric, or curcumin, resveratrol, and omega-3 fatty acids as well as vitamin D “retard or significantly delay” Alzheimer’s (Philip, 2013, October 24, para.2)

In a study published in the November 9, 2012 issue of Current Alzheimer Research, “Low 25OH Vitamin D2 Levels Found in Untreated Alzheimer’s Patients, Compared to Acetylcholinesterase-inhibitor Treated and  Controls”, researchers examined blood samples of Alzheimer’s patients and healthy controls and discovered that those diagnosed with Alzheimer’s had low cellular and circulatory stores of vitamin D (Philip, 2013, October 24, para. 3).

Lead researcher Declan Naughton explains that in older adults diagnosed with Alzheimer’s vitamin D was “either nonexistent or in such low qualities that it couldn’t be measured” (Philip, 2013, October 24, para. 4). Medical science has already determined that vitamin D lowers the risk of cancer, cardio-vascular disease, stroke, and diabetes (Philip, 2013, October 24, para. 5).

Simon, Nissa. (2012, July 13). Vitamin D deficiency linked to dementia. AARP Bulletin. Retrieved from http://www.aarp.org/health/conditions-treatments/info-07-2010/vitamin_d_deficiency_linked_to_dementia.html

Senior adults with low levels of vitamin D in their blood are four times more likely to experience cognitive decline as their peers blessed with adequate levels of vitamin D, according to a study led by David Llewellyn, a neuropsychologist at the University of Exeter, who presented their findings at the Alzheimer’s Association International Conference.  Llewellyn’s research-team analyzed 3,326 adults age 65 and older and determined that an adverse relationship existed between low levels of vitamin D and impaired thinking skills. Those participants with moderately low levels of vitamin D were 42 percent more likely to perform poorly on memory and mental acuity tests while those blood was “severely deficient” in vitamin D were 400 percent more likely to flunk their Mini-Mental State Examination (Simon, 2012, July 13, para. 3). Most older adults in the United States have low levels of vitamin D in their blood perhaps because the skin becomes less effective in turning sunlight into vitamin D (Simon, 2012, July 13, para. 4-5). Researchers also hypothesize that vitamin D might protect the blood supply to the brain as well as clear toxins, and break down amyloid-beta plaque (Simon, 2012, July 13, para. 6-7).

Soni, M., Kis, K., and Lang, I. A., et al. (2012). Vitamin D and cognitive function. Scandinavian Journal of Clinical and Laboratory Investigation. Supplemetum, 243, pp. 79-82. doi: 10.3109/00365513.2012.681969. [Abstract only]. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22536767

Cognitive decline and dementia need to be added to the long list of conditions associated with lower levels of Vitamin D, including osteoporosis, heart disease, stroke, cancer, and type-2 diabetes. Vitamin D receptors are widespread in the brain, and the active form of Vitamin D may clear beta-amyloid plaques. European and United States studies also have associated low levels of Vitamin D with an increased risk of Vitamin D—up to four times greater in severely deficient Vitamin D older adults (Soni, 2012, Abstract, p. 79).  

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Natural & Supplemental Sources

of Vitamin D³

Brody, Jane. (2010, July 26).  What do you lack? Probably vitamin D.  Health. New York Times.  Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/27/health/27brod.html?_r=0

Most Americans are vitamin D deprived, even though every tissue in the body has receptors for the sunshine vitamin.  Consequently, vitamin D deficiency raises the risk of colon, breast, and prostate cancer, high blood pressure, cardiovascular disease, osteoarthritis, multiple sclerosis, and rheumatoid arthritis (Brody, 2010, July 26, para. 1-3)—not to mention Alzheimer’s, which Brody does not list in this catalogue of diseases brought on by a modern lifestyle (Brody, 2010, July 26, para. 4). Brody, however, simplifies the process of how sun-exposed skin turns into 25-hydroxyvitamin D³ in the liver and 1,25 vitamin D , or vitamin D hormone, in the kidneys (Brody, 2010, July 26, para. 5). She also suggests that for maximum bone density, the vitamin D³ found in blood samples should reach 40 nanograms per millimeter or more, although mitochondria Eve and Y-chromosomal Adam’s blood probably had 50 nanograms per millimeter. However, not enough sun exposure because of sunscreen and protective covering and perhaps not eating enough fatty fish, like salmon and tuna, ensures that most individuals have lower levels of vitamin D³ (Brody, 2010, July 26, para. 7-9).

Most European Americans average 18 to 22 nanograms of vitamin D³ per millimeter of blood while African Americans average between 13 to 15 nanograms of vitamin D³ per millimeter of blood (Brody, 2010, July 26, para. 10). 

The Northern United States has higher rates of cancer than the South most probably because of reduced sun exposure just as African Americans experience higher rates of high blood pressure, heart disease, and prostate cancer since they have darker skin than white Americans.  Similarly, the rise of Type 1 diabetes may stem from overly protecting young children from sun exposure (Brody, 2010, July 26, para. 12). 
Current medical practice recommends an intake of  at least 200 IU of vitamin D³ daily up to age 50 and 400 I.U. of vitamin D³ a day from age 50 to 70, so older adults and pregnant and lactating mothers need to take a vitamin D supplement (Brody, 2010, July 26, para. 14). When the body acquires vitamin D through sunlight, it has a built-in cut off, so it doesn’t absorb too much vitamin D.  Individuals really deprived of vitamin D can also stand comparatively high doses (Brody, 2010, July 26, para. 16-18), but it is best to consult a physician before self-medicating.

Lite, Jordan. (2009, March 23). Vitamin D deficiency soars in the U.S., study says. Scientific American.  Retrieved from http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/vitamin-d-deficiency-united-states/

According to findings published in JAMA Internal Medicine, 75 percent of all American teens and adults are deficient in vitamin D.


Ginde, A. A., Liu, M. C., & Camargo, C.C. (2009, March 23). Demographic differences and trends of Vitamin D insufficiency in the US population, 1988-2004. JAMA Internal Medicine, 169 (6), pp. 623-632. doi: 10.1001/archinternmed.2008.604.  Retrieved from http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/vitamin-d-deficiency-united-states/

Just 23 percent of the blood samples taken in this survey had 30 nanograms per millimeter or more of vitamin D, and only 3 percent of African Americans did so (Ginde, 2009,March 23, para. 2-3).  Medical science has long linked vitamin D insufficiency with osteoporosis and rickets, but recent research has determined that it also correlates with heart diseases, diabetes, and cancer (Ginde, 2009, March 23, para. 4).  Skeptics, however, in part account for this drop in vitamin D levels by noting that blood tests measure the amount of vitamin D in the blood differently than they use to do (Lite, 2009, March 24, para. 6-7).  Even so, Ginde, who insists the study is reliable, blames this drop in vitamin D to an over-reaction to skin cancer campaigns, and he even goes so far as to suggest that African Americans take double the amount of vitamin D supplements recommended for whites (2009, March 23, para. 10).

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Robin, Suzanne. (2014). How to raise your vitamin D3 level. Healthy Eating. SF Gate. Retrieved from http://healthyeating.sfgate.com/raise-vitamin-d3-level-3561.html

The skin synthesizes vitamin D that it takes from the sun, but the vitamin is found in lesser amounts in some foods, or it can be taken as a supplement (Robin, 2014, para. 1).  Vitamin D², which comes from plants, and vitamin D³ supplements are available, but authorities believe the body absorbs vitamin D³ more efficiently.  Spending from 5 to 30 minutes in the sun with the face, arms, legs, or back exposed between 10 A.M. and 3 P.M. in the summer, fall, and winter for just two days a week supplies all the vitamin D most adults need (Robin, 2014, para. 3).  The body also stores vitamin D in the liver for 60 days.  Nevertheless, the American Academy of Dermatology warns against tanning (Robin, 2014, para. 4).

Beef liver, cheese, egg yolks, and omega-3 fatty fish all contain relatively small amounts of vitamin D³ while mushrooms supply vitamin D².  Cod liver oil, however, is the best source of vitamin D other than the sun (Robin, 2014, para. 5).  As for supplements, the Food and Nutrition Board recommends a dose of 600 I.U. daily for everyone between one and 70 and a dosage of 800 I.U. daily for adults over age 70 (Robin, 2014, para. 6).

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Vitamin D. Drugs and supplements. (2016). Dosing. Mayo Clinic. Retrieved from http://www.mayoclinic.org/drugs-supplements/vitamin-d/dosing/HRB-20060400

Most multi-vitamins contain from 50 to 100 IU's of Vitamin D. The revised RDA for vitamin D as of 2010 is 600 IU's from age 1 to 70 is 600 IU's, but at age 71 it jumps up to 800 IU's. Even so, an adequate level of vitamin D can be achieved from regular sun exposure on the face, arms, and legs without sunscreen for between 15 to 30 minutes daily (Mayo, 2016, para. 2).

However, to improve cognition, an increase dosage of 528 to 9,000 IU's of Vitamin D2 or Vitamin D3 as been taken daily by mouth from 8 to 40 weeks without harm (Mayo, 2016, para. 9), so older adults with a fading memory and armed with this blog page might wish to ask their physician about the advisablity of upping their Vitamin D supplements. Of course, even though too much sun causes sunburn, the body can't overdose on sun exposure from Vitamin D. Nevertheless, the skin of older adults often has trouble absorbing it.  

Vitamin D.  Fact sheet for health professionals. (2011 June 24). National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements.  Table 3. Retrieved from http://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminD-HealthProfessional/

Selected Food Sources of Vitamin D*

• Cod liver oil (1 tablespoon): 1,360 I.U., 340 D.V.
• Sockeye salmon (3 ounces): 447 I.U., 112 D.V.
• Tuna, canned in water & drained (3 ounces): 154 I.U., 39 D.V. 
• Orange juice fortified with vitamin D (1 cup): 137 I.U., 34 D.V.
• Fortified milk (1 cup): 115-124 I.U., 29-31 D.V
• Fortified yogurt (6 ounces): 80 I.U., 20 D.V.
• Sardines canned in oil & drained (2 sardines): 46 I.U., 12 D.V.
• Beef liver cooked (3 ounces): 42 I.U., 11 D.V.
• Egg (1 large): 41 I.U., 10 D.V.
• Fortified ready-to-eat cereal: 40 I.U., 10 D.V.
• Swiss cheese (1 ounce): 6 I.U. 2 D.V.

*BTW, i have removed margarine and sword fish from this list because of recent medical findings:  Medical research has connected the trans fats in margarine to heart disease, and swordfish contains high levels of mercury.

Tozzi, John.  (2013, November 7). Twilight of trans fat: The FDA wants to take your margarine away. Bloomsberg Businessweek. Retrieved from  http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2013-11-07/twilight-of-trans-fat-the-fda-wants-to-take-your-margarine-away

What you need to know about mercury  in fish and shellfish. (2013, November 20). Water: Outreach & Communication.  EPA. Retrieved from http://water.epa.gov/scitech/swguidance/fishshellfish/outreach/advice_index.cfm

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Conclusion

Staying physically and mentally active should be everyone's goal.

Taking a  brisk 20-minute walk outside after lunch, adding at least two servings of broiled or baked omega-3 fatty fish to the diet weekly, cultivating a taste for curries laced with turmeric (curcumin), and taking vitamin D³ supplements just might prevent or delay Mild Cognitive Impairment and Alzheimer’s. Moreover, since maintaining an adequate supply of vitamin D also guards against the inflammation that causes cardiovascular disease, it certainly will not hurt to take out this form of long-term care insurance!

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Now for a personal note:  Since I have written and researched this blog page, I started  taking 1,000 mg. of vitamin D daily as well as taking a fish oil supplement that I had stopped taking in the weeks before my mother died this spring. Some time later, I stopped this supplement, although I have continued to eat two servings of omega-3 fatty fish each week.  Consequently, I have noticed that my energy level has increased even more than it usually does in the summer months even in the depths of an admittedly mild (compared to most places) Central Texas winter.

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The links furnished on this Web page represent the opinions of their authors, so they complement—not substitute—for a physician’s advice.